Perceptions of stranger and acquaintance rape: The role of benevolent and hostile sexism in victim blame and rape proclivity.

In Studies 1 and 2, after reading an acquaintance-rape but not a stranger-rape scenario, higher benevolent sexist but not hostile sexist participants blamed the victim significantly more. In Study 2, higher hostile sexist but not benevolent sexist male participants showed significantly greater proclivity to commit acquaintance (but not stranger) rape. Studies 3 and 4 supported the hypothesis that the effects of benevolent sexism and hostile sexism are mediated by different perceptions of the victim, as behaving inappropriately and as really wanting sex with the rapist. These findings show that benevolent sexism and hostile sexism underpin different assumptions about women that generate sexist reactions toward rape victims. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women's performance.

Four experiments found benevolent sexism to be worse than hostile sexism for women's cognitive performance. Experiments 1-2 showed effects of paternalist benevolent sexism and ruled out explanations of perceived sexism, context pleasantness, and performance motivation. Experiment 3 showed effects of both paternalist and complementary gender differentiation components of benevolent sexism. Benevolent sexism per se (rather than the provision of unsolicited help involved in paternalism) worsened performance. Experiment 4 showed that impaired performance due to benevolent sexism was fully mediated by the mental intrusions women experienced about their sense of competence. Additionally, Experiment 4 showed that gender identification protected against hostile but not benevolent sexism. Despite the apparently positive and inoffensive tone of benevolent sexism, our research emphasizes its insidious dangers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexism in research is not only sexism.

Problems of gender bias and sexism in research cited by F. Denmark et al (see record 1988-34553-001) illustrate violations of general principles of sound scientific formulation, data collection, data analysis, interpretation, and reporting. Social bias is the content of these violations rather than their substance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality.

The equation of prejudice with antipathy is challenged by recent research on sexism. Benevolent sexism (a subjectively favorable, chivalrous ideology that offers protection and affection to women who embrace conventional roles) coexists with hostile sexism (antipathy toward women who are viewed as usurping men's power). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, first validated in U.S. samples, has been administered to over 15,000 men and women in 19 nations. Hostile and benevolent sexism are complementary, cross-culturally prevalent ideologies, both of which predict gender inequality. Women, as compared with men, consistently reject hostile sexism but often endorse benevolent sexism (especially in the most sexist cultures). By rewarding women for conforming to a patriarchal status quo, benevolent sexism inhibits gender equality. More generally, affect toward minority groups is often ambivalent, but subjectively positive stereotypes are not necessarily benign. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Yet another dark side of chivalry: Benevolent sexism undermines and hostile sexism motivates collective action for social change.

The current research tests a model for understanding how benevolent sexism undermines, whereas hostile sexism promotes, social change. Study 1 (N = 99) and Study 2 (N = 92) demonstrate that exposing women to benevolent sexism decreases their engagement in collective action, whereas exposure to hostile sexism increases it. Both effects were mediated by gender-specific system justification and perceived advantages of being a woman. In Study 2, positive and negative affect also mediated these relationships. Results from Studies 3 and 4 (N = 68 and N = 37) support the causal chain described in the mediational models tested in Studies 1 and 2. Manipulations that increased gender-specific system justification (Study 3) and perceived advantages of being a woman (Study 4) reduced intentions to participate in collective action. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The prevention of sexism.

Defines sexism as the act of ascribing superiority or inferiority, unsupported by evidence, in traits, abilities, social values, and personal worth to males or females as a group. It is also considered a form of psychopathology—delusional and dangerous to others. An examination of the origins of sexism suggests religious and economic causation. Therefore, prevention of sexism is seen to go beyond consciousness-raising among psychologists and to require social and political efforts. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexism in graduate admissions: The letter of recommendation.

Two experienced raters examined the letters of recommendation of 38 female and 85 male students admitted to graduate study for sexist comments. Examples of sexist statements made in regard to female candidates are presented. The effect of such statements on admissions and retention is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices.

Prejudice and discrimination against women has become increasingly subtle and covert (N. V. Benokraitis & J. R. Feagin, 1986). Unlike research on racism, little research about prejudice and discrimination against women has explicitly examined beliefs underlying this more modern form of sexism. Support was found for a distinction between old-fashioned and modern beliefs about women similar to results that have been presented for racism (J. B. McConahay, 1986; D. O. Sears, 1988). The former is characterized by endorsement of traditional gender roles, differential treatment of women and men, and stereotypes about lesser female competence. Like modern racism, modern sexism is characterized by the denial of continued discrimination, antagonism toward women's demands, and lack of support for policies designed to help women (for example, in education and work). Research that compares factor structures of old-fashioned and modern sexism and racism and that validates our modern sexism scale is presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Even unintentional sexism hurts: Comment on Cummings.

A. L. Cummings's (see record 1989-37745-001) interpretation of a difference in the performance of female and male counselors appears to be biased against men. The logical and methodological flaws that may have influenced such an interpretation are reviewed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Women in prison: Sexism behind bars.

Identifies some problems experienced by women incarcerated in US prisons. Comparisons are made of the availability of occupational and educational programs in prisons for men and women. Problems of separation from families and the impact of inadequate health and mental health services on the lives of women prisoners are also examined. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychotherapy with older women: Ageism and sexism in traditional practice.

Based on the guidelines suggested by the American Psychiatric Association in reference to young women, the role of sexism in the ageist attitudes and practices of traditional psychotherapists is discussed. Sexism is seen as a major component in the neglect of the elderly by mental health professionals. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The management of hostile aggression: Seneca as applied social psychologist: Comment.

Maintains that the work of Roman philosopher-educator-statesman L. Annaeus Seneca is not recognized adequately as a precursor to applied social psychology. It is noted that Seneca's biases as a psychological practitioner were cognitive or rational-emotive and that, as a theorist, he was intrigued by the interplay of emotions, cognitions, and behavior. Specifically reviewed are Seneca's view of the shape of violence and his suggestions for the management of violence. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Organizational justice and men's likelihood to sexually harass: The moderating role of sexism and personality.

This study demonstrated relations between men's perceptions of organizational justice and increased sexual harassment proclivities. Respondents reported higher likelihood to sexually harass under conditions of low interactional justice, suggesting that sexual harassment likelihood may increase as a response to perceived injustice. Moreover, the relation between justice and sexual harassment proclivities was especially marked for men low in agreeableness and high in hostile sexism. This finding is consistent with an interactionist perspective, suggesting that individual differences in hostility in general and toward women in particular affect how a person reacts to perceived unfairness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Multidimensional Anger Inventory.

Describes the development of and psychometric data for an inventory—the Multidimensional Anger Inventory (MAI)—that is sensitive to the multidimensional nature of the anger construct. It was hypothesized that the MAI would include scales reflective of the following dimensions of anger: frequency, duration, magnitude, mode of expression, hostile outlook, and range of anger-eliciting situations. The mode of expression dimension was expected to contain separate anger-in, anger-out, guilt, brood, and anger-discuss measures. The MAI was administered to 124 female and 74 male 40–63 yr old male factory workers. Factor analyses of the MAI within the 2 samples showed that the frequency, duration, and magnitude dimensions clustered together to form an Anger-Arousal factor that accounted for 64 and 71% of the variance in the 2 samples, respectively. The range of anger-eliciting situations and hostile outlook emerged as separate dimensions, as hypothesized. Mode of anger expression was best described by 2 factors labeled Anger-In and Anger-Out. Psychometric analyses of the scale showed that it possessed adequate test–retest reliability (r?=?.75) and high internal consistency (alpha?=?.84 and .89 for the 2 samples). The validity of the scale was supported by the expected pattern of relations with other inventories designed to assess anger of hostility (e.g., the Buss-Durkee Hostility-Guilt Inventory). (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The HOME Inventory and family demographics.

Examined the relation between the Home Observation for Measurement of Environment (HOME) Inventory and several child-status and family-structure variables, namely, sex, race, SES, the amount of crowding in the home, and birth order. MANCOVAs using HOME subscales as criterion measures and the status and structural variables as predictors were performed on data from 79 intact families gathered when the index child was 12 and 24 mo of age. Only crowding and birth order showed consistent relations with HOME scores when the effects of all other predictor variables were controlled. Of the 6 HOME scales, Organization of the Environment, Provision of Appropriate Play Materials, and Maternal Involvement showed the strongest relation to the status and structural measures. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Beck Anxiety Inventory: A psychometric analysis.

Provides information on the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) with respect to psychometric properties, gender differences, and relation to depression. A sample of 291 psychiatric patients (mean age 36.9 yrs) completed the BAI, and a subsample of 251 completed the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The results from factor analyses demonstrated that the BAI has 2 factors, corresponding to cognitive and somatic symptoms. Although men and women did not differ in terms of factor structures, they did differ on mean levels of cognitive and somatic symptom scores and on total BAI scores. Finally, it was found that BAI items were distinguishable from BDI items, suggesting that the symptoms measured in the 2 scales are not entirely overlapping. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Differentiation of Self Inventory: Development and initial validation.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 56(4) of Journal of Counseling Psychology (see record 2009-18895-011). In the January 1998 edition of the Journal of Counseling Psychology (Volume 45, Number 3, p. 246), the key to the Appendix was printed incorrectly. Please see the attached errata for further information.] Despite the importance of Bowen theory (M. Bowen, 1976,1978; M. E. Kerr & Bowen, 1988) in the field of family therapy, there have been relatively few studies to date examining its constructs or propositions. To fill this gap, a self-report instrument, the Differentiation of Self Inventory (DSI) has been developed. The DSI is a multidimensional measure of differentiation that focuses specifically on adults (age 25+), their significant relationships, and current relations with family of origin. Six-hundred and nine adults participated in a series of 3 studies, in which DSI scores—reflecting less emotional reactivity, cutoff, and fusion with others, and a greater ability to take an "I position"—predicted lower chronic anxiety, better psychological adjustment, and greater marital satisfaction. Other results consistent with Bowen theory are discussed, along with the potential contribution of the DSI for testing Bowen theory, as a clinical assessment tool, and as an indicator of psychotherapeutic outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The impact of sexism on women''s health and health care

An azalide antibiotic (CP-62,993) was administered at 100 mg/kg by oral gavage once daily for 35 consecutive days to 3 normal Beagle dogs (tapetal) and 3 Beagle dogs lacking a clinically apparent ocular tapetum (atapetal). The total dose delivered was approximately 100-fold the recommended clinical dose. Bilateral ophthalmoscopic changes were observed in the treated tapetal dogs on Day 36, consisting of mild to moderate tapetal decoloration with loss of the normal color change at the junction with the nontapetal fundus and muting of reflectivity of the normally highly reflective tapetum; treated atapetal and all control tapetal and atapetal dogs had no ophthalmoscopic changes. Microscopic examination of ocular tissue revealed rudimentary tapetal cell layers in the correct location in untreated, clinically atapetal eyes. Tapetal cells from treated tapetal and atapetal dogs were swollen and vacuolated, and contained intracytoplasmic, electron-dense debris but no recognizable tapetal rodlets. Lysosomal lamellar bodies were observed in the retinal ganglion cells of both treated groups and were neither enhanced nor reduced by the presence of a functional tapetum. Necrosis and inflammation were not observed in any ocular tissue. The altered ophthalmoscopic appearance of treated tapetal dogs was not influenced by the retinal changes because any effect on retinal transparency would have been seen in treated atapetal dogs. The decoloration and muting of reflectivity observed clinically in the tapetal fundus of dogs following prolonged exposure to high levels of CP-62,993 result from unique changes within the ocular tapetum itself and cannot be interpreted to be of consequence to nontapetal species including humans.