Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Low-Carbon Q235 Steel Welded Using Friction Stir Welding

This study focuses on the microstructure and mechanical properties of the joints of Q235 mild steel, which was formed by the friction stir welding (FSW). The results indicated that, after the FSW, the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the retreating side (HAZ_RS) and the HAZ of the advancing side (HAZ_AS) recovered under the influence of the heating cycle. The transformation of the phases in the thermo-mechanically affected zone (TMAZ) of the retreating side (TMAZ_RS), the stir zone (SZ) and the TMAZ of the advancing side (TMAZ_AS) generated the pearlite and acicular ferrite. The continuous dynamic recrystallization occurred in all the three zones, whereas the grains were refined. The SZ mainly consisted of D₁, D₂ and F shear textures, while the TMAZ_AS was made up of only the F shear texture. The fine-grained structure, pearlite and the acicular ferrite improved the hardness and tensile strength of the joint. Its ultimate tensile strength was 479 MPa, which was 1.3% higher than that of the base metal. However, the uniform elongation was 16%, which showed a decrease of 33%. The fracture was a ductile fracture with the appearance of dimples. Besides, the joints of the FSW showed an excellent bending performance.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Welded 1.5 GPa Martensitic High-Strength Steel Plates

In this study, 2.4 mm thick high-strength martensitic steel plates with a tensile strength of 1500 MPa were friction stir welded at various welding speeds of 40, 60, 80, 100, 120 mm/min and a constant rotation speed of 300 rpm. Sound joints could be obtained when the welding speed was 40, 60 and 80 mm/min, while a kissing bond was found in the joint welded at 100 and 120 mm/min. It was revealed that the peak temperature exceeded A_C3 (the end temperature at which all ferrite transformed to austenite when the steel was heated) for all the welding conditions and martensitic structures were finally formed in the stir zone of the joints. A significant decrease in hardness was located in the heat-affected zone, which had a transitional microstructure from tempered martensite near base metal to a mixed structure containing hard martensite, soft ferrite and bainite near stir zone. For the sound joints, the specimen was fractured in the heat-affected zone during tensile tests and the highest tensile strength could reach about 1058 MPa.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of X80 Pipeline Steel Joints by Friction Stir Welding Under Various Cooling Conditions

X80 pipeline steel plates were friction stir welded(FSW) under air, water, liquid CO_2 + water, and liquid CO_2 cooling conditions, producing defect-free welds. The microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of these FSW joints were studied. Coarse granular bainite was observed in the nugget zone(NZ) under air cooling, and lath bainite and lath martensite increased signifi cantly as the cooling medium temperature reduced. In particular, under the liquid CO_2 cooling condition, a dual phase structure of lath martensite and fi ne ferrite appeared in the NZ. Compared to the case under air cooling, a strong shear texture was identifi ed in the NZs under other rapid cooling conditions, because the partial deformation at elevated temperature was retained through higher cooling rates. Under liquid CO_2 cooling, the highest transverse tensile strength and elongation of the joint reached 92% and 82% of those of the basal metal(BM), respectively, due to the weak tempering softening. A maximum impact energy of up to 93% of that of the BM was obtained in the NZ under liquid CO_2 cooling, which was attributed to the operation of the dual phase of lath martensite and fi ne ferrite.     

Influence of Pin Offset on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Welded Mg/Ti Dissimilar Alloys

The influences of pin offset on the formation, microstructure and mechanical properties of friction stir welded joint of Ti6 Al4 V and AZ31 B Mg dissimilar alloys were investigated. The results show that sound joints are obtained at different offsets. With the offset decreasing from 2.5 to 2.1 mm, the number of Ti alloy fragments is increased, and the stir zone(SZ) is enlarged and the grains in SZ become coarser. A hook-like structure is formed at the Mg/Ti interface and its length is increased with the decrease in pin offset. The Al element has an enrichment trend at the Ti alloy side near the Mg/Ti interface when the offset is decreased, which is beneficial to the bonding of the interface. An Al-rich layer with a thickness of 3–5μm forms at the offset of 2.1 mm. All the joints fracture at the interface and present a mixed ductile-and-brittle fracture mode. The joint tensile strength is increased with the offset decreasing from 2.5 to 2.1 mm, and the maximum tensile strength of 175 MPa is acquired at the offset of 2.1 mm.     

AZ91D镁合金搅拌摩擦焊接头组织与性能

采用搅拌摩擦焊对AZ91D镁合金进行焊接试验,研究了搅拌摩擦焊接头的组织与性能.结果表明,当转速为1 000～1 400 r/min、焊速为50～150 mm/min时,均可得到表面成形良好、内部无孔洞和隧道的焊缝;焊接区与母材组织差异极大,焊接区形成细小、均匀的再结晶组织,具有锻造组织特征;热影响区为部分再结晶组织,再结晶晶粒沿原铸造晶粒的晶界生长;对接头进行拉伸试验,断裂发生在母材处,表明接头的抗拉强度高于母材.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties in Friction Stir Welded Thick Al–Zn–Mg–Cu Alloy Plate

In this work, 20-mm-thick aluminum-alloy plates were joined via friction stir welding. The temperature gradient was reduced by reducing the surface welding heat input to achieve uniformity of the mechanical properties across the thick plate joints. The welding temperature was measured using thermocouples. The microstructures were observed via electron backscatter diff raction and transmission electron microscopy. The tensile properties of the samples sliced along the thickness direction of the j...     

Influence of Multi-pass Friction Stir Processing on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Die Cast Al–7Si–3Cu Aluminum Alloy

The influence of overlap multi-pass friction stir processing on the microstructure and the mechanical properties, in particular, strength, ductility and hardness of die cast Al–7Si–3Cu aluminum alloy was investigated.It was observed that increase in the number of overlap passes friction stir processing resulted in significant refinement and redistribution of aluminum silicon eutectic phase and elimination of casting porosities. The microstructural refinement by the friction stir processing not only increases the ultimate tensile strength from 121 to273 MPa, but also increases the ductility as observed by the increase in fracture strain from 1.8% to 10%. Analysis of the fractured surface reveals that the microstructural refinement obtained by friction stir processing plays a vital role in transforming the fracture mode from completely mixed mode to the ductile mode of the fracture with increasing number of passes. The change in the size, shape, morphology and distribution of eutectic silicon particles and elimination of the porosities are the main reasons for the increases in tensile strength and ductility due to friction stir processing.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of RAFM-316L Dissimilar Joints by Friction Stir Welding with Different Butt Joining Modes

Dissimilar welded joints of reduced activation ferritic/martensitic (RAFM) steel and 316L austenitic stainless steel were prepared by friction stir welding with different butt joining modes and welding parameters. The weld quality of the joint was improved by placing the 316L steel on the advancing side and the RAFM steel on the retreating side, and using a relatively high rotational speed of 400 rpm. The microstructure of the stir zone on the 316L steel side consisted of single-phase austenite, and the microstructure of the stir zone on the RAFM steel side mainly consisted of lath martensite and equiaxed ferrite. A mechanical mixture of the two steels and diffusion of Cr and Ni could be detected near the bonding interface. Diffusion of Ni from the 316L steel to the RAFM steel resulted in the formation of a dual-phase structure consisting of austenite and ferrite. The as-welded joints showed good strength and ductility at room temperature and 550 °C, which were nearly equal to those of the 316L base material. The heat-affected zone on the RAFM side had the lowest impact toughness throughout the weld with a value of 13.2 J at - 40 °C, ~ 52% that of the RAFM base material.     

Chemical Composition Effect on Microstructures and Mechanical Properties in Friction Stir Additive Manufacturing

The variation of chemical compositions can affect the mechanical property of friction stir additive manufacturing (FSAM). Quantitative characterization of the relationship between the chemical composition and the mechanical property of FSAM components is key to control the quality of FSAM components. The effect of chemical composition on the mechanical property of 6xxx series aluminum alloy FSAM joint was studied by both experimental and numerical methods. A moving heat source model was established to simulate the heat transfer in FSAM process. The average grain size was calculated by Monte Carlo model, and the precipitate evolution model was used to calculate the hardness and constitutive stress-strain relationship. The validity of the numerical model was verified by experiments. Results indicate that the hardness and yield stress of 6xxx series aluminum alloy FSAW joint can be enhanced by increasing silicon or magnesium contents. By increasing the content of magnesium (silicon), the volume fraction and the mean radius of Mg₂Si can be increased when the content of silicon (magnesium) is excessive. With the decrease in volume fraction, the average grain size can be increased. By changing the weight percentage of magnesium and silicon in different layers, the hardness and yield stress along the build direction can be controlled.     

Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Dissimilar Double-Side Friction Stir Welds Between Medium-Thick 6061-T6 Aluminum and Pure Copper Plates

It is difficult to achieve Al/Cu dissimilar welds with good mechanical properties for medium-thick plates due to the inherent high heat generation rate at the shoulder-workpiece contact interface in conventional friction stir welding. Thus, double-side friction stir welding is innovatively applied to join 12-mm medium-thick 6061-T6 aluminum alloy and pure copper dissimilar plates, and the effect of welding speeds on the joint microstructure and mechanical properties of Al/Cu welds is systematically analyzed. It reveals that a sound Al/Cu joint without macroscopic defects can be achieved when the welding speed is lower than 180 mm/min, while a nonuniform relatively thick intermetallic compound (IMC) layer is formed at the Al/Cu interface, resulting in lots of local microcracks within the first-pass weld under the plunging force of the tool during friction stir welding of the second-pass, and seriously deteriorates the mechanical properties of the joint. With the increase of welding speed to more than 300 mm/min void defects appear in the joint, but the joint properties are still better than the welds performed at low welding speed conditions since a continuous uniform thin IMCs layer is formed at the Al/Cu interface. The maximum tensile strength and elongation of Al/Cu weld are, respectively, 135.11 MPa and 6.06%, which is achieved at the welding speed of 400 mm/min. In addition, due to the influence of welding distortion of the first-pass weld, the second-pass weld is more prone to form void defects than the first-pass weld when the same plunge depth is applied on both sides. The double-side friction stir welding is proved to be a good method for dissimilar welding of medium-thick Al/Cu plates.     

Dissimilar Joining of Pure Copper to Aluminum Alloy via Friction Stir Welding

In this study, the dissimilar friction stir welding(FSW) butt joints between aluminum alloy 5754-H114 and commercially pure copper were investigated. The thickness of welded plates was 4 mm and the aluminum plate was placed on the advancing side. In order to obtain a suitable flow and a better material mixing, a 1-mm offset was considered for the aluminum plate, toward the butt centerline. For investigating the microstructure and mechanical properties of FSWed joints, optical microscopy and mechanical tests(i.e., uniaxial tensile test and microhardness) were used, respectively.Furthermore, the analysis of intermetallic compounds and fracture surface was examined by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The effect of heat generation on the mechanical properties and microstructure of the FSWed joints was investigated. The results showed that there is an optimum amount of heat input. The intermetallic compounds formed in FSWed joints were Al4Cu9 and Al2Cu. The best results were found in joints with 1000 rpm rotational speed and100 mm/min travel speed. The tensile strength was found as 219 MPa, which reached 84% of the aluminum base strength.Moreover, maximum value of the microhardness of the stir zone(SZ) was attained as about 120 HV, which was greatly depended on the grain size, intermetallic compounds and copper pieces in SZ.     

铝合金LD10的搅拌摩擦焊组织及性能分析

搅拌摩擦焊是 2 0世纪 90年代发展起来的新型固态塑性连接方法 ,在航空航天结构中铝合金件的焊接方面有很好的应用前景。文中试验研究了航空航天结构件常用的LD10铝合金的搅拌摩擦焊技术。通过工艺试验 ,对其塑性连接时的焊缝成形、焊缝组织形态及接头的力学性能进行了分析。研究结果表明 ,用搅拌摩擦焊方法焊接板厚6mm的LD10铝合金 ,当规范参数合适时 ,可获得外观成形美观、内部无缺陷、几乎无变形的平板对接接头。从显微组织角度 ,焊接接头可分为五个区域 ,即焊核、热力影响区、热影响区、轴肩变形区和探针挤压区 ,各区域的组织有明显的特征。接头的力学性能试验表明 ,接头的抗拉强度可达母材的 87% ,高于熔焊接头的强度 ,断裂位置大多位于热影响区     

High-Speed Friction Stir Welding of SiC_p/Al–Mg–Si–Cu Composite

A 17 vol% SiCp/Al–Mg–Si–Cu composite plate with a thickness of 3 mm was successfully friction stir welded(FSWed) at a very high welding speed of 2000 mm/min for the first time. Microstructural observation indicated that the coarsening of the precipitates was greatly inhibited in the heat-affected zone of the FSW joint at high welding speed, due to the significantly reduced peak temperature and duration at high temperature. Therefore, prominent enhancement of the hardness was achieved at the lowest hardness zone of the FSW joint at this high welding speed, which was similar to that of the nugget zone. Furthermore, the ultimate tensile strength of the joint was as high as 369 MPa, which was much higher than that obtained at low welding speed of 100 mm/min(298 MPa). This study provides an effective method to weld aluminum matrix composite with superior quality and high welding efficiency.     

High-Speed Friction Stir Welding of T6-Treated B_4Cp/6061Al Composite

T6-treated 20 wt% B_4 Cp/6061 Al sheets were joined under welding speeds of 400–1200 mm/min by friction stir welding(FSW) with a threaded cermet pin. The macro-defect-free FSW joints could be achieved at high welding speeds up to 1200 mm/min, but larger plunge depth was required at the welding speeds of 800 and 1200 mm/min to eliminate the tunnel defect. In the nugget zone(NZ) of the joints, the B_4 C particles were broken up and uniformly redistributed. The NZ exhibited lower hardness than the base metal(BM), and the hardness value almost did not change with increasing welding speed, attributable to the dissolution of precipitates. Compared with the BM, the joints showed lower tensile strength. As the welding speed increased from 400 to 800 mm/min, the joint efficiencies were nearly the same and up to ～ 73%. When the welding speed increased up to 1200 mm/min, the tensile strength significantly decreased, due to the occurrence of kissing bond defect at the bottom of the NZ. With increasing welding speed, the fracture location of the joints transferred gradually from the heat-affected zone to the NZ due to the kissing bond defects.     

Radial Distribution Characteristics of Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Ti–6Al–4V Butt Joint by Rotary Friction Welding

Ti–6Al–4V rods were butt-welded by rotary friction welding in this study. Additionally, the radial differences in microstructure and mechanical property of joints were investigated by hierarchy slicing method. The results displayed that the width of weld zone and heat-affected zone of joints became wider along radial direction. Meanwhile, the tensile strength of joints decreased gradually along the radial direction. According to the theoretical analysis, the temperature gradient and inhomogeneous forging pressure leaded to the radial differences. Through K-type thermocouples, the actual temperatures at different locations were measured, and the results were consistent with the theoretical analysis. Theoretically, the radial differences of rotary friction welding joint are an inherent phenomenon; thus, the size of weldment should be limited strictly below the corresponding critical size. In order to prevent radial differences from enlarging, the welding surface profile of weldment can be processed into oval shape, and a larger forging pressure can be used within the scope of the joint deformation allowed according to causes for radial differences.     

Microstructure,Mechanical Properties,and Corrosion Behavior of Mg-Al-Ca Alloy Prepared by Friction Stir Processing

Friction stir processing (FSP) was used to modify the microstructure and improve the mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of an Mg-Al-Ca alloy. The results demonstrated that, after FSP, the grain size of the Mg-Al-Ca alloy was decreased from 13.3 to 6.7 μm. Meanwhile, the Al₈Mn₅ phase was broken and dispersed, and its amount was increased. The yield strength and ultimate tensile strength of the Mg-Al-Ca alloy were increased by 17.0% and 10.1%, respectively, due to the combination of fine grain, second phase, and orientation strengthening, while the elongation was slightly decreased. The immersion and electrochemical corrosion rates in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution decreased by 18.4% and 37.5%, respectively, which contributed to grain refinement. However, the stress corrosion cracking (SCC) resistance of the modified Mg-Al-Ca alloy decreased significantly, which was mainly due to the filiform corrosion induced by the Al₈Mn₅ phase. SCC was mainly controlled by anodic dissolution, while the cathodic hydrogen evolution accelerated the SCC process.     

Ultrafine-Grained Microstructure and Improved Mechanical Behaviors of Friction Stir Welded Cu and Cu–30Zn Joints

Ultra-strong joints of pure Cu and Cu–30Zn alloy were obtained by friction stir welding under flowing water. The effects of heat inputting condition and material characteristics on the morphologies, microstructures and mechanical properties of welding joints were studied. Defect-free stirring zones of pure Cu and Cu–30Zn were characterized by onion-ringed structure and plastic flowing bands, respectively. Both low stacking fault energy and fast cooling condition contributed to the formation of small recrystallized grains less than 1 μm in stirring zones. The welding joints in both materials exhibited enhanced mechanical performances due to ultrafine-grained microstructure in stirring zones and disappearance of soft heataffected-zone. The technique of digital image correlation was used to study the tensile deformation behaviors of welding joints and verify the improved tensile properties.     

Effect of Rotation Rate on Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Processed Ni-Fe-Based Superalloy

In this work,friction stir processing (FSP) was applied to the high-strength and high-melting-point Ni-Fe-based superal-loy (HT700) for the first time with negligible wear of the stir tool.Different rotation rates were chosen to investigate the effect of heat input on microstructure and tensile properties at different temperatures of friction stir processed Ni-Fe-based superalloy.The results showed that with increasing rotation rate,the percentage of high-angle grain boundaries and twin boundaries gradually decreased whereas the grain size initially increased and then remained almost constant;the difference in tensile properties of FSP samples with rotation rates of 500-700 rpm was small attributing to their similar grain size,but the maximum strength was achieved in the FSP sample with a rotation rate of 400 rpm and traverse speed of 50 mm/min due to its finest grain size.More importantly,we found that the yield strength of all FSP samples tensioned at 700 ℃ was enhanced clearly resulting from the reprecipitation of γ'phase.In addition,the grain refinement mechanism of HT700 alloy during FSP was proved to be continuous dynamic recrystallization and the specific refinement process was given.     

2A12铝合金搅拌摩擦焊接过程中接头组织与焊接工艺的关系

利用搅拌摩擦焊接方法对2A12铝合金板材进行了焊接试验，探讨了搅拌头的设计参数、焊接过程的工艺参数等对2A12铝合金板材焊接接头组织的影响。经过试验得知，在焊接时，搅拌头转速可为750r／min～1180r／min，走动速度为23．5mm／min～30mm／min，皆可获得接头性能尚可的焊接接头。同时发现焊接区的硬度约为母材硬度的70％。搅拌头长度略小于焊接板材厚度时仍可能使板材焊透。采用带有螺纹的搅拌头进行焊接对焊缝孔洞的形成有一定影响。     

Refill Friction Stir Spot Welding of Similar and Dissimilar Alloys:A Review

Refi ll friction stir spot welding, also known as friction spot welding(FSpW), is a solid-state welding process suitable for spot joining of lightweight materials. Through the eff orts of improving joint quality for similar and dissimilar materials, for example, aluminum and magnesium, this joining technology is well developed. The joining mechanism and process characteristics of FSpW have been widely studied. However, the application of FSpW in industry has not been entirely successful. In this review article, the research of similar and dissimilar material joints, such as, Al/Cu, Al/Ti, Al/Mg and Al/Steel, is summarized. The microstructural features and mechanical properties of the joints, welding tool and the application development are discussed in detail.