Effects of Mechanically Separated Beef with Various Chloride Salts in Restructured Beef Steaks

The effects of various chloride salts (NaCl, MgCl₂, KCl or 65% NaCl + 35% KCl) in combination with mechanically separated beef (MSB at 0, 10 or 20%) on the quality of restructured steaks formulated from bullock chucks were determined. As level of MSB increased, objectionable connective tissue, flavor desirability and overall palatability decreased and off-flavors increased. The development of oxidative rancidity during frozen storage was not affected by MSB level and MSB had little effect on textural traits. NaCl and NaCl + KCl treated steaks received superior flavor and overall palatability ratings over steaks containing MgCl₂ or KCl. Oxidative rancidity developed faster in steaks containing NaCl than the other salt types. Partial replacement (35%) of NaCl with KCl resulted in restructured steaks with sensory properties equal to and storage life superior to steaks with NaCl alone.     

Effects of Various Phosphates on the Palatability, Appearance and Storage Traits of Flaked and Formed Restructured Beef Steaks

Seven blends (9.1 kg raw meat) were formulated with 0.75% NaCl and 0.25% or 0.5% sodium tripolyphosphate (STP), sodium hexa-metaphosphate (SHMP) or sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP). Steaks from all blends were “slightly” to “moderately” desirable in flavor and overall satisfaction scores. Steaks made with STP had higher shear force values and work required to shear values than all other restructured steaks indicating an increase in binding occurred with added STP. Restructured steaks formulated with 0.5% STP or SHMP had more desirable raw color scores than the control or steaks made with SAPP. Storage life of all phosphate added restructured steaks was past 90 days frozen storage, and steaks containing STP had thiobarbituric acid values below 1.0 at 120 days storage.     

Effect of Chloride Salts and Antioxidants on Sensory and Storage Traits of Restructured Beef Steaks

The effects of antioxidants (0.01 or 0.02% of total fat), salt level (0.375 or 0.750%) and salt type (NaCl, KCl or a 65% NaCl + 35% KCl combination) in a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial arrangement on the quality of restructured beef steaks were determined. Meat blends with 0.02% antioxidant had lower thiobarbituric acid (TBA) values than those with 0.01% after 85 to 155 days of frozen storage. Steaks with no salt (pooled across antioxidant levels) had lower TBA values than steaks with any salt type after 85 days storage or either level of salt after 155 days storage. Steaks with either level of added salt resulted in higher ratings for juiciness, saltiness and overall palatability than steaks with no added salt. Juiciness, flavor desirability, saltiness and overall palatability ratings generally were higher for restructured steaks made with NaCl or NaCl + KCl compared to those made with KCl. KCl at 35% of total salt could serve as a NaCl substitute in restructured beef steaks.     

Effects of Chloride Salts on Physical, Chemical and Sensory Properties of Frankfurters

Triplicate 4.5 kg batches of frankfurters formulated with either pork/beef or mechanically deboned turkey (MDT) were made to replace all (100%) or part (35%) of the sodium chloride (NaCl) with either potassium chloride (KCl), magnesium chloride (MgCl₂) or lithium chloride (LiCl). Regardless of storage period or formulation, replacing all of the NaCl with either KCl or MgCl₂ was detrimental to flavor. This same replacement with LiCl was not detrimental to flavor in pork/beef formulations. Data suggest that MgCl₂ would not be a satisfactory substitute for NaCl in these formulations; however, replacing 35% of the NaCl with KCl may be possible. Because of its toxicity, LiCl is not GRAS-approved and we do not recommend its use but, its use in this study more closely approximated the sensory properties of NaCl than either KCl or MgCl₂.     

EFFECTS OF PAPAIN,FICIN AND SPLEEN ENZYMES ON TEXTURAL,VISUAL, COOKING AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF BEEF BULLOCK RESTRUCTURED STEAKS1

Twelve blends were formulated from young bullocks to contain 0, 0.125, 0.250 or 0.375% spleen extract, papain or ficin enzymes. All blends were analyzed for chemical, sensory and visual properties. Control blends were superior to all enzyme treated restructured steaks for flavor desirability and overall satisfaction ratings. Type and level of enzyme significantly decreased fat and increased moisture percentages, and the enzymatic degradation of the myofibril caused emulsion instability. Cooking loss and cooking time were longer for blends made with enzymes as the protein matrix was denatured extensively. Storage time was reduced significantly with the addition of spleen enzymes and all restructured steaks were undesirable for raw appearance ratings. Restructured steaks formulated with these enzymes had reduced connective tissue amount; however, the proper level of these enzymes needs to be studied further in order to minimize the problems in binding and sensory properties.     

BALANCING MACROMINERAL COMPOSITION OF FRESH-PACK CUCUMBER PICKLES TO IMPROVE NUTRITIONAL QUALITY AND MAINTAIN FLAVOR1

The macromineral nutritional balance of fresh-pack dill cucumber pickles was improved without loss of flavor quality. A product with flavor acceptability equal to the original product was obtained if NaCl was reduced by 40%, from 2.0% to 1.2%. To replace the 0.8% reduction in NaCl 0.8% KCl was added. CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ were added proportionately to match the daily value (DV) of the added KCl. In addition to changes in mineral composition, low levels of both citric acid and hot pepper sauce were added to improve flavor acceptability. The flavor acceptability of dill pickles was rated higher (P <0.05) than the 2.0% NaCl control when the NaCl concentration was reduced 20% from 2.0 to 1.6%, and 0.4% KCl was added to replace the NaCl. Again, CaCl₂ and MgCl₂ were added at a level which gave the same proportion of the DVs of these minerals as 0.4% KCl. The highest flavor acceptability in the product with 20% less NaCl was obtained when only citric acid was added as a flavor modifier.     

Gamma-Irradiation of CIostridium botulinum Inoculated Turkey Frankfurters Formulated with Different Chloride Salts and Polyphosphates

The effects of gamma-irradiation doses (0, 0.5, and 1.0 Mrad) on C. botulinum toxin production in turkey frankfurters formulated with three different chloride salts (NaCl, KCl, and MgCl₂) at isoionic strength (equal to 2.5% NaCl) and three types of phosphates added to 2.0% NaCl frankfurters were studied. The use of 2.5% NaCl together with 0.5 or 1.0 Mrad was substantially more effective at inhibitinlg botulinal toxin production when frankfurters were incubated at 27°C than the combination of irradiation with KCl or MgC1₂ (40, 9, and 4 days, respectively, when treated with 1 Mrad). Phosphate addition revealed that 0.4% sodium acid pyrophosphate addition was the most inhibitory for botulinal toxin production followed by hexametaphosphate and tripolyphosphate addition.     

LOW-FAT, NO ADDED SALT IN RESTRUCTURED BEEF STEAKS WITH VARIOUS BINDERS

This research investigated technology for the development of a low-fat restructured beef steak devoid of added salt with texture similar to intact muscle. Low-fat (10%), low-sodium restructured beef steaks made from closely trimmed, flaked beef round muscles and tumbled with or without a binding agent were compared to boneless top loin steaks (5–6% fat). Boneless top loin steaks had greater (P < .05) shear resistance, cohesiveness, juiciness, overall desirability, percentage moisture (raw) and percentage protein (cooked) than restructured steaks. Steaks made with 3.0% modified potato starch had slightly more juiciness and moisture content (cooked) and lower expressible fluid content than all other restructured samples. Product made with 1.0% microcrystalline cellulose had lower (P < .05) juiciness scores than top loin steaks and restructured steaks made with no additives or modified potato starch. Use of 0.25% kappa-carrageenan or 1.5% surimi increased (P < .05) sensory scores for off-flavor. Steaks made with 1.5% surimi also had lower (P < .05) sensory scores for overall desirability.     

Effect of sodium,potassium, calcium and magnesium chloride salts on porcine muscle proteases

This study is focused on the effect of sodium chloride alternative salts (KCl, MgCl₂ and CaCl₂) on porcine muscle proteases (cathepsins, dipeptidylpeptidases and aminopeptidases). In general, KCl exerted a very similar effect to NaCl for all the studied enzymes, while the effect of divalent salts (CaCl₂ and MgCl₂) was more pronounced. Cathepsins, dipeptidyl peptidase III, dipeptidyl peptidase IV and alanyl aminopeptidase activities were strongly inhibited by all the chloride salts especially by divalent ones. Dipeptidyl peptidase II and leucyl aminopeptidase were little affected and methionyl aminopeptidase was only inhibited by divalent salts. Dipeptidyl peptidase I was strongly activated by low concentrations of the chloride salts except NaCl. Arginyl aminopeptidase was activated by NaCl and KCl and low amounts of MgCl₂, while CaCl₂ showed a strong inhibitory effect. This is very important as these enzymes play important roles in dry-cured meats and their activity is, in general, regulated by sodium chloride. Thus, reductions in the sodium concentration with subsequent increases of other alternative cations may have relevant consequences on enzyme activity that should be taken into account when processing dry-cured meats.     

Physical, Chemical and Sensory Characteristics of Four Types of Beef Steaks

Four types of beef forequarter steaks, rib eye roll steaks (RER), ser-ratus ventralis solid-muscle structured steaks (SRV), salt/phosphate comminuted structured steaks (NaCl/PO⁴) and algin/calcium comminuted structured steaks (Alg/Ca) were evaluated. Meat purchasers preferred the color, lack of surface discoloration and overall appearance of intact muscle steaks (RER and SRV) over the comminuted structured steaks (NaCl/PO⁴ and Alg/Ca). Purchasers perceived the fat content in SRV steaks to be less than in RER steaks. Sensory evaluations of juiciness and overall desirability were similar for all four types. Intact muscle steaks were lower in sensory tenderness ratings and higher in flavor desirability than comminuted structured steaks. Consumer acceptability was evident for all four types offering merchandising options to beef fabricators.     

Water sorption and time-dependent crystallization behaviour of freeze-dried lactose-salt mixtures

Water sorption properties of freeze-dried lactose, lactose/CaCl₂, lactose/NaCl, lactose/MgCl₂, and lactose/KCl mixtures in their molar ratio of (9:1) were investigated. Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) and Guggenheim-Anderson-de Boer (GAB) models were used to model water sorption properties. Water is known to function as a plasticizer, depressing the glass transition and facilitating crystallization. Crystallization in the present study resulted in loss of sorbed water from lactose. The crystallization of pure lactose and lactose/salt mixtures was observed at RVP?44.0% within 24 h. At RVP?54.4% water contents were higher in lactose/CaCl₂ and lactose/MgCl₂ mixtures than in pure lactose, lactose/NaCl, and lactose/KCl.Water content in pure lactose after crystallization was ?5.0%, suggesting that lactose crystallized as a mixture of α-lactose monohydrate and various anhydrous forms of α/β-lactose crystals. Anhydrous lactose/CaCl₂ and lactose/MgCl₂ had higher glass transition temperatures than lactose, but other salts (NaCl and KCl) with lactose gave lower glass transition than amorphous lactose. It seems that bivalent salts in mixtures with lactose gave a higher T_g than smaller monovalent ions. Salts delayed lactose crystallization. The effect on lactose crystallization was highest with calcium chloride (CaCl₂) and lowest with potassium chloride (KCl). It seems that different salts interacted with lactose to different extents. For water sorption, GAB model gave a better fit than BET model. Water sorption and time-dependent crystallization properties of lactose/salt mixtures should be considered in manufacturing and storage of dairy-based dehydrated materials.     

Use of a D-optimal mixture design to estimate the effects of diverse chloride salts on the growth parameters of Lactobacillus pentosus

The effects of NaCl, KCl, CaCl₂, and MgCl₂ and their mixtures on the ionic strength (IS) of the medium and the growth parameters of Lactobacillus pentosus were studied by means of a D-optimal mixture experimental design with constrains (total salt concentration ≤ 9.0%, wt/vol) and the generalized z-value. The IS was linearly related to the concentrations of the diverse salts and its increase, for similar concentrations of salts, followed the order MgCl₂ > CaCl₂ > NaCl > KCl. Within the experimental region, the lag phase duration (λ) was mainly affected by NaCl and CaCl₂ and the interaction KCl with MgCl₂. The maximum specific growth rate (μ_max) decreased as NaCl (the highest effect), CaCl₂, and MgCl₂ increased (regardless of the presence or not of previous NaCl); low KCl concentrations had a stimulating effect on μ_max, but its overall effect showed a similar trend to the other salts. The maximum population reached (N_max) was the least affected parameter and decreased as NaCl and CaCl₂ concentrations increased regardless of the presence of the other salts. The equations that expressed the growth parameters as a function of the diverse chloride salts, within the limits assayed, were developed and the corresponding z- and harmonic Z-values were estimated.     

Impact of muscle type and sodium chloride concentration on the quality, sensory, and instrumental color characteristics of solution enhanced whole-muscle beef

Beef biceps femoris (n = 10; muscle sections, n = 20; BF), infraspinatus (n = 10; muscle sections, n = 20; IS), and longissimus (n = 10; muscle sections, n = 20; LM) muscles were utilized to evaluate the effect of enhancement with phosphate and varying levels of sodium chloride in beef muscles differing in composition and palatability. Muscles were untreated or solution enhanced to 112% of raw product weight with sodium tripolyphosphate at 0.4% of product weight (STPP), or STPP and sodium chloride (NaCl) at 0.5%, 1.0% or 1.5% of product weight. There was a quadratic relationship (P = 0.04) for percent free water to decrease and a linear relationship (P < 0.01) for cook yield to increase as the level of NaCl increased. The IS steaks required less (P < 0.05) shear force than either the BF or LM, with the BF and LM having similar (P > 0.05) shear force values. There was a linear relationship (P < 0.01) for shear force values to decrease with increasing salt concentration. Steaks from all four enhancement treatments had lower (P < 0.05) shear force values than untreated steaks. Sensory overall tenderness ratings revealed that the IS and LM were similar (P > 0.05) and superior (P < 0.05) to the BF in tenderness. Steaks enhanced with STPP and 0.5%, 1.0%, or 1.5% NaCl all were rated more tender (P < 0.05) than untreated or STPP-only treated steaks. The BF exhibited the lowest (P < 0.05) L* (lightness) and a* (redness) values, as well as decreased (P < 0.05) vividness. The LM generally exhibited superior color to the other two muscle types. There was a linear relationship (P < 0.01) for L*, a*, b* (yellowness) values, and vividness to decline with increasing salt concentration, but steaks enhanced with STPP and 0.5% NaCl were similar (P > 0.05) in a* values and vividness to untreated steaks. These results suggest that across three different muscles varying in composition and palatability, enhancement with 0.4% STPP and 0.5% NaCl allowed for improvements in palatability while minimizing the color deterioration associated with phosphate/salt enhancement.     

Rheological and Gelation Properties of Meat Batters Prepared with Three Chloride Salts

The gelation and rheological properties of poultry meat emulsions prepared with three chloride salts (NaCl, KCl, MgCl₂) and 50/50 mixtures of the above salts at isoionic strength (IS = 0.42) were studied. The relationship between shear rate and shear stress for the different raw meat emulsions was found to be nonlinear and followed Bingham pseudoplastic behavior. The yield stress for the emulsion containing only MgCl₂ was significantly lower as compared to all the other treatments. The highest rigidity modulus values obtained during cooking were observed in the NaCl + MgCl₂ treatment followed by the NaCl + KCl, NaCl and KCl. The emulsion containing MgCl₂ only broke down at the initial stages of cooking, exhibiting the destabilizing effect of the magnesium cation.     

THE EFFECT OF SLICE THICKNESS AND MIXING TIME ON THE PALATABILITY AND COOKING CHARACTERISTICS OF RESTRUCTURED BEEF STEAKS

Restructured beef steaks were made from chuck meat that was flaked (6 mm) or sliced at various thicknesses (2.5, 5.0 or 7.5 mm). Each formulation was mixed for 5, 10, 15 or 20 min, pressed into logs, frozen and cut into steaks. Steaks were evaluated for fat and moisture contents, cooking characteristics, and sensory attributes. Slice thickness had little effect on sensory properties; however, the restructured steaks were significantly more tender and possessed a more desirable texture and flavor than the intact chuck steaks. Restructured steaks made from meat that was mixed for 5 or 10 min were significantly more tender and received higher texture desirability and overall palatability ratings than restructured steaks made from meat that was mixed for 15 or 20 min.     

Effect of ionic strength of different salts on the binding of volatile compounds to porcine soluble protein extracts in model systems

The effect of different salts on the binding ability of porcine soluble protein extracts was studied using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and GC/MS analysis. Previously, the effect of the different salts (NaCl, KCl, MgCl₂ and CaCl₂) on the volatile compound headspace concentration in water solution was determined. KCl produced a similar salting out effect as NaCl increasing the volatile compound headspace concentration up to 5–10 times. However, MgCl₂ and CaCl₂ did not produce a salting out effect on the volatile compounds studied. Finally, NaCl and KCl produced a significant reduction on the binding ability of sarcoplasmic protein extracts to branched aldehydes, hexanal and methional while no effect was produced on octanal and 2-pentanone. On the other hand, the effect of MgCl₂ and CaCl₂ was much lower even at high ionic strength, except for the branched aldehydes where the presence of MgCl₂ at 1.0 ionic strength produced the complete liberation of the volatile compound bound. Consequently, the partial NaCl substitution in meat products by other salts must be considered not only due to their salting out effect but also due to their effect on protein binding ability.     

Effect of chloride salts on protein extraction and interfacial protein film formation in meat batters

Six comminuted chicken breast meat mixes and six meat batters were made with isoionic NaCl (25 g kg^?1), MgCl₂, CaCl₂, KCl, LiCl (IS = 0.43) and 15 g kg^?1 NaCl (IS = 0.26). The quantity and type of proteins extracted and used for interfacial protein film (IPF) formation was determined and related to batter stability. The monovalent salts produced IPF which differed in individual protein content between salts but which all contained significantly larger amounts of protein (P < 0.01) than those using divalent salts. MgCl₂ extracted more protein than CaCl₂ and produced a different protein profile in the IPF. However, MgCl₂ formed unstable raw batters whereas CaCl₂ did not. In addition, a simple, rapid method for extracting and quantifying proteins from meat batters was developed to assist in direct determination of the actual soluble protein uptake by the fat phase during comminution.     

Generation of volatile compounds in Brazilian low-sodium dry fermented sausages containing blends of NaC1, KC1, and CaC12 during processing and storage

Brazilian dry fermented sausages with different salt contents were manufactured: control (2.5% NaCl), 50% salt reduced (1.25% NaCl, F1), 50% replaced by KCl (1.25% NaCl and 1.25% KCl, F2), 50% replaced by CaCl₂ (1.25% NaCl and 1.25% CaCl₂, F3), and 50% replaced by KCl and CaCl₂ (1.25% NaCl, 0.625% KCl and 0.625% CaCl₂, F4). Changes in the composition of volatile compounds were studied during processing (0, 7, and 19 days) and storage (30, 60, and 90 days). Neither reduction nor replacement of NaCl by KCI affected the volatile compounds produced during the manufacturing process, and both increased the volatile compounds from carbohydrate fermentation and amino acid degradation during storage. The addition of CaCl₂ improved the generation of hexanal and (E)-hept-2-enal and other volatiles from lipid oxidation during processing and storage. After 90 days of storage, the control sample showed an increase in the generation of volatile compounds from lipid oxidation.     

Protein Extractability of Turkey Breast and Thigh Muscle with Varying Sodium Chloride Solutions as Affected by Calcium, Magnesium and Zinc Chloride

Ground turkey breast and thigh muscle were extracted with various NaCl solutions with or without added CaCl₂, MgCl₂, or ZnCl₂ (0.05%). Protein solubility was increased by CaCl₂ and decreased by ZnCl₂ in each muscle type. At 4% NaCl, MgCl₂ increased thigh myosin solubility by 30%, compared to the control, whereas CaCl₂ had no effect. At 2% and 4% NaCl, breast myosin was not affected by MgCl₂ or CaCl₂. Myosin was not detected for either muscle type when ZnCl₂ was used. All three salts increased breast actin solubility but only MgCl₂ increased thigh actin solubility. The CaCl₂ resulted in the highest overall protein solubility and MgCl₂ resulted in the highest thigh myosin and actin solubility at 4% NaCl.