Application of biospeckle laser technique for determining biological phenomena related to beef aging

Among the features of beef quality, color is a major factor that influences marketing since it is the only characteristic consumers can see at the time of purchase, although tenderness is the organoleptic trait that most affects consumer acceptance of beef. Thus, an effective technology to predict meat quality is highly desirable for the meat industry. Among many emerging technologies, optical methods have the greatest potential since they are fast, nondestructive, and generally low cost. This study evaluated the potential application of laser biospeckle technique and its methods of image processing in order to assess and quantify biological phenomena related to beef aging. Samples of muscle Longissimus thoracis were aged for 21 days and underwent biospeckle analysis, objective color and Warner–Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF). According to the results, biospeckle laser parameters may, possibly, assess biological activity resulting from action of endogenous enzymes (calpains and cathepsins) responsible for the aging process through its correlation (R = 0.6146) with analysis of WBSF and of the correlation (−0.7973) with aging time. High correlation of biospeckle analysis, related to traditional out puts and to new proposals, were obtained to color parameters, especially hue angle (h^*) whose R value was 0.7953, redness intensity (R = 0.8120) and percentage of metmyoglobin (MMb) showed that R value of 0.9119, demonstrates the potential of this technique for evaluating quality of meat color.     

The relevance of different near infrared technologies and sample treatments for predicting meat quality traits in commercial beef cuts

Visible and near infrared reflectance (Vis-NIR, 350 to 1800 nm), and near infrared transmittance (NIT, 850 to 1050 nm) spectroscopy were used to predict beef quality traits of intact and ground meat samples. Calibration equations were developed from reference data (n = 312) of pH, color traits (L*, a*, and b*), ageing loss (%), cooking loss (%), and Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF, N) using partial least squares regressions. Predictive ability of the models was assessed by coefficient of determination of cross-validation (R²_CV) and root mean square error of cross-validation. Quality traits were better predicted on intact than on ground samples, and the best results were obtained using Vis-NIR spectroscopy. Predictions were good (R²_CV = 0.62 to 0.73) for pH, L*, and a*, hardly sufficient (R²_CV = 0.34 to 0.60) for b*, cooking loss, and WBSF, and unsatisfactory for ageing loss (R²_CV = 0.15). Vis-NIR spectroscopy might be used to predict some physical beef quality traits on intact meat samples.     

Prediction of beef quality attributes using VIS/NIR hyperspectral scattering imaging technique

Hyperspectral imaging images were used to predict fresh beef tenderness (WBSF: Warner-Bratzler Shear Force) and color parameters (L^∗, a^∗, b^∗). Sixty-five fresh strip loin cuts were collected from 33 carcass after 2 days postmortem. After acquiring hyperspectral images, the samples were vacuum packaged and aged for 7 days, and then the color parameters and WBSF of the samples were measured as references. The optical scattering profiles were extracted from the images and fitted to the Lorentzian distribution (LD) function with three parameters. LD parameters, such as the scattering asymptotic vale, the peak height, and full scattering width were determined at each wavelength. Stepwise discrimination was used to identify optimal wavelengths. The LD parameters’ combinations with optimal wavelengths were used to establish multi-linear regression (MLR) models to predict the beef attributes. The models were able to predict beef WBSF with R_cv = 0.91, and color parameters (L^∗, a^∗, b^∗) with R_cv of 0.96, 0.96 and 0.97, respectively.     

Using reflectance spectroscopy to predict beef tenderness

A study was conducted to determine if reflectance measurements made in the near-infrared region of the spectrum were additive to reflectance measurements made in the visible region of the spectrum for predicting Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF) values. Eighty seven strip loins were collected following fabrication over 3 d at a commercial beef processing facility from heifer carcasses with Slight or Traces marbling scores. Spectroscopic measurements were made at approximately 50 h postmortem using a Hunter-Lab UltraScan. Subsequently, all strip loins were aged for 14 d, cooked to an internal temperature of 70 °C, and sheared to obtain WBSF values. Reflectance measurements obtained in the near-infrared region of the spectrum were correlated with WBSF values, however, these measurements were not additive to the predictive ability of reflectance measurements (R² values did not differ) made in the visible portion of the spectrum when the use of broad-band wavelength filters were simulated. It was therefore determined, that both the visible and near-infrared spectra measure reflectance and that both methods are acceptable methods of tenderness prediction.     

Calcium and potassium content in beef: Influences on tenderness and associations with molecular markers in Nellore cattle

Calcium (Ca) and potassium (K) are essential nutrients in animal nutrition. Furthermore, the Ca content can influence meat tenderness because it is needed by the proteolytic system of calpains and calpastatins, major factors in postmortem tenderization of skeletal muscles. K content, which is needed for muscle contraction, can also affect meat tenderness. This study showed that K positively affects the Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF), measured at 14 days of meat aging, which means that higher levels of K are related to lower meat tenderness. Additionally, a significant effect (P ≤ 0.015) of a SNP in the calcium-activated neutral protease 1 (CAPN1) gene on Ca content was observed. Metal content in beef can affect not only nutritional values but also meat quality traits. Part of this effect may be related to variation in specific genes.     

Optical scattering with hyperspectral imaging to classify longissimus dorsi muscle based on beef tenderness using multivariate modeling

The objective of this study was to develop a non-destructive method for classifying cooked-beef tenderness using hyperspectral imaging of optical scattering on fresh beef muscle tissue. A hyperspectral imaging system (λ = 922–1739 nm) was used to collect hyperspectral scattering images of the longissimus dorsi muscle (n = 472). A modified Lorentzian function was used to fit optical scattering profiles at each wavelength. After removing highly correlated parameters extracted from the Lorentzian function, principal component analysis was performed. Four principal component scores were used in a linear discriminant model to classify beef tenderness. In a validation data set (n = 118 samples), the model was able to successfully classify tough and tender samples with 83.3% and 75.0% accuracies, respectively. Presence of fat flecks did not have a significant effect on beef tenderness classification accuracy. The results demonstrate that hyperspectral imaging of optical scattering is a viable technology for beef tenderness classification.     

Consumer responses for tenderness and overall impression can be predicted by visible and near-infrared spectroscopy,Meullenet–Owens razor shear,and Warner–Bratzler shear force

Beef ribeye rolls (n = 40) from Select, low Choice, top (upper 2/3) Choice, and Prime quality grade carcasses were used to determine the relationship of visible and near-infrared spectroscopy (VNIR) reflectance, Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF), and Meullenet–Owens razor shear (MORS) with consumer responses for tenderness and overall impression. Steaks (2.54 cm) were cut and assigned to either 14 or 28 d aging (n = 4/aging period). Reflectance in the VNIR spectrum was measured 1 d from the box-date no less than 30 min after cutting, and prior to aging. The steak used for VNIR measurement was designated for WBSF and MORS measurement, whereas three adjacent steaks were cooked for evaluation by a consumer panel (n = 240 members). Steaks from the Select-grade ribeye rolls had the greatest (P = 0.06) WBSF values and lower (P < 0.05) overall impression scores than those from top Choice and Prime quality grades. Consumer panelists evaluated steaks aged 28 d as more tender (P < 0.05) than those aged 14 d. The relationship of mechanical tenderness measurements were higher with consumer panel responses for tenderness than with overall impression, and those relationships were stronger for the Select grade than for quality grades with higher degrees of marbling. The 2nd derivatives of VNIR measurements were more successful at predicting consumer panel responses of tenderness and overall impression than WBSF and MORS; thus, VNIR methodology was less invasive and more predictive than other, more traditional tenderness measurements.     

Effects of blade tenderization,aging method and aging time on meat quality characteristics of Longissimus lumborum steaks from cull Holstein cows

The effects of blade tenderization (BT), two aging methods (dry (D) and wet (W)), and aging time (2 and 23 d) on tenderness, color, and sensory properties of Longissimus lumborum muscles from 12 cull Holstein cows were evaluated. Dry-aged loins had higher combined trim and aging losses than control (C) for both D- and W-aging, mostly because of excess trim losses. BT steaks had WBSF of 33.13 N while C steaks had WBSF of 41.46 N (P = 0.09). Aging decreased WBSF. Blade tenderized steaks had higher cook loss than C steaks. Aging, W-aging, and BT × W-aging improved myofibrillar (sensory) tenderness scores. Aging and/or BT improves sensory panel tenderness cull cow Longissimus lumborum steaks. Aging and blade tenderization combined can increase tenderness and value of Longissimus steaks from cull Holstein cows.     

Disparity of dietary effects on collagen characteristics and toughness between two beef muscles

Manipulation of growth rate and/or diet has been shown to affect protein turnover and may be used to improve beef quality. This trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of average daily gain (ADG) and diet on animal performance, collagen characteristics and beef quality of two different muscles; longissimus dorsi (LD) and semitendinosus (ST). Seventy six Hereford and Angus steers were assigned to three dietary management regimens for finishing: high grain diet based on corn (n = 28), alfalfa pasture (n = 22) and grass pasture (n = 26). Average daily gains were greater (P < 0.001) in Herefords vs. Angus and for corn- vs. pasture finished cattle. Overall, total collagen content was greater (P < 0.001) and the percentage of total collagen that was heat soluble was lower (P < 0.0001) for ST than for LD muscle. The lowest (P < 0.05) values for both total and heat soluble collagens were found in animals finished on corn. WBSF values for LD were greater (P < 0.01) in grass-fed vs. alfalfa- and grain-finished cattle while there was no difference in WBSF values for ST between grass- and corn-fed animals. No correlation between ADG and WBSF was observed for any muscle. ADG was not correlated with collagen solubility in ST, but was correlated (P < 0.05) with collagen solubility in LD. A key finding is that growth rate affected heat soluble collagen in the two muscles to a different extent. In conclusion, this study shows that different feeding strategies may not influence the tenderness of all muscles in a similar way.     

Eating quality of “Vitela Tradicional do Montado”-PGI veal and Mertolenga-PDO veal and beef

Physicochemical and sensory characteristics were measured in veal and beef from the Portuguese Mertolenga breed having 3 quality labels as follows: Mertolenga-PDO beef and veal which apply to purebred animals and “Vitela Tradicional do Montado”-PGI veal which applies to crossbred animals. Measurements were made in longissimus lumborum muscle aged for 6 days. The temperature 3 h post-mortem (T₃), cooking losses and Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF) reflected carcass weight (CW) differences between groups. The pigment content was influenced by age, with beef having higher values than veal. WBSF correlated negatively with intramuscular fat in Mertolenga-PDO beef, but not on veal. WBSF correlated positively with cooking losses and negatively with myofibrillar fragmentation index, tenderness, juiciness and overall acceptability. Cooking losses and juiciness were the main contributors for the tenderness differences. Vitela Tradicional do Montado-PGI and Mertolenga-PDO veal had lighter colour and were considered tender. The three meat types were well discriminated based on pH_u, a* and C* parameters by canonical discriminant analysis.     

Assessment of the sensory quality and shelf stability of selected Horro beef muscles in Ethiopia

The objective of this work was to assess sensory quality and retail life of Horro beef muscles in Ethiopia. Six muscles: M. rhomboideus (RM), M. infraspinatus (IS), M. longissimus lumborum (LL), M. semimembranosus (SM), M. biceps femoris (BF) and M. rectus femoris (RF) were considered. Sensory quality of the muscles was rated by a 9-member trained panel for palatability, tenderness, juiciness, amount of connective tissue (ACT), lean color and surface discoloration and measured by Warner-Bratzler Shear Force (WBSF). Retail life of the six muscles were evaluated for CIE 1976 L^∗a^∗b^∗ color values across 6 days. Significant differences (p < 0.05) between muscles for all sensory attributes and WBSF were found. Significant L^∗a^∗b^∗ color values of muscles and USDA quality grades by retail life were found (p < 0.05). Significant correlations (p < 0.05 or p < 0.01) of key parameters were also identified.     

Non-destructive assessment of instrumental and sensory tenderness of lamb meat using NIR hyperspectral imaging

The purpose of this study was to develop and test a hyperspectral imaging system (900–1700 nm) to predict instrumental and sensory tenderness of lamb meat. Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF) values and sensory scores by trained panellists were collected as the indicator of instrumental and sensory tenderness, respectively. Partial least squares regression models were developed for predicting instrumental and sensory tenderness with reasonable accuracy (R_cv = 0.84 for WBSF and 0.69 for sensory tenderness). Overall, the results confirmed that the spectral data could become an interesting screening tool to quickly categorise lamb steaks in good (i.e. tender) and bad (i.e. tough) based on WBSF values and sensory scores with overall accuracy of about 94.51% and 91%, respectively. Successive projections algorithm (SPA) was used to select the most important wavelengths for WBSF prediction. Additionally, textural features from Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix (GLCM) were extracted to determine the correlation between textural features and WBSF values.     

Preliminary investigation on the relationship of Raman spectra of sheep meat with shear force and cooking loss

A prototype handheld Raman system was used as a rapid non-invasive optical device to measure raw sheep meat to estimate cooked meat tenderness and cooking loss. Raman measurements were conducted on m. longissimus thoracis et lumborum samples from two sheep flocks from two different origins which had been aged for five days at 3–4 °C before deep freezing and further analysis. The Raman data of 140 samples were correlated with shear force and cooking loss data using PLS regression. Both sample origins could be discriminated and separate correlation models yielded better correlations than the joint correlation model. For shear force, R² = 0.79 and R² = 0.86 were obtained for the two sites. Results for cooking loss were comparable: separate models yielded R² = 0.79 and R² = 0.83 for the two sites. The results show the potential usefulness of Raman spectra which can be recorded during meat processing for the prediction of quality traits such as tenderness and cooking loss.     

Carcass and meat quality characteristics of Brahman cross bulls and steers finished on tropical pastures in Costa Rica

Forty-eight male calves (3/4 Brahman × 1/4 Charolais) were used to determine carcass cutability and meat tenderness of Longissimus lumborum (LL), Gluteus medius (GM), Semitendinosus (ST) and Psoas major (PM) steaks from lighter weight carcasses of bulls and steers castrated at 3, 7, or 12 mo of age grown under tropical pasture conditions. Steaks from steers had lower (more tender) LL Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF) values than those from bulls. Steaks from steers castrated at 3 mo had lower GM WBSF than those from bulls. For PM steaks, those aged 28 d had lower WBSF than those aged 2 d. Steaks aged 28 d had the lowest LL and GM WBSF and steaks aged 2 d had the highest LL, GM, and ST WBSF. Castration at younger ages is recommended because it provides improvement in LL and GM tenderness over bulls with no differences in carcass traits or subprimal yields.     

Image analysis study of the perimysial connective network,and its relationship with tenderness and composition of bovine meat

Image processing method was developed to predict beef tenderness, collagen and lipids contents. The study was carried out on the semimembranosus muscle (SM). Images of SM slices were acquired under visible and ultraviolet lighting. In this work statistical technique was implemented as a method to relate the distribution of intramuscular connective tissue (IMCT), characterized by image analysis, to sensory tenderness evaluated by a trained panel and collagen and total lipids contents assessed chemically. Using Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) combining visible and ultraviolet lighting, IMCT image parameters were found to be good predictors of beef tenderness (R² = 0.89), collagen and lipids contents (respectively R² = 0.82 and R² = 0.91).     

Alternative pre-rigor foreshank positioning can improve beef shoulder muscle tenderness

Thirty beef carcasses were harvested and the foreshank of each side was independently positioned (cranial, natural, parallel, or caudal) 1 h post-mortem to determine the effect of foreshank angle at rigor mortis on the sarcomere length and tenderness of six beef shoulder muscles. The infraspinatus (IS), pectoralis profundus (PP), serratus ventralis (SV), supraspinatus (SS), teres major (TM) and triceps brachii (TB) were excised 48 h post-mortem for Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF) and sarcomere length evaluations. All muscles except the SS had altered (P < 0.05) sarcomere lengths between positions; the cranial position resulted in the longest sarcomeres for the SV and TB muscles whilst the natural position had longer sarcomeres for the PP and TM muscles. The SV from the cranial position had lower (P < 0.05) shear than the caudal position and TB from the natural position had lower (P < 0.05) shear than the parallel or caudal positions. Sarcomere length was moderately correlated (r = − 0.63; P < 0.01) to shear force.     

The effects of different cooking regimes on the cook yield and tenderness of non-injected and injection enhanced forequarter beef muscles

The aim was to investigate the effect of different cooking regimes on the cook yield and tenderness of non-injected and brine injected (0.5% residual NaCl) bovine M. triceps brachii caput longum (TB), M. supraspinatus (SP) and M. pectoralis profundus (PP). Injected and non-injected TB, SP and PP muscle sections (400 g) were (a) conventionally oven cooked to 72 °C or cooked slowly (using a Δ10 programme) to 72 °C or (b) cooked in a water bath to 72 °C or cooked in a water bath to 55 °C and held at this temperature for 2 h before heating to 72 °C. In addition, injected PP muscle sections were oven cooked to 69 °C and held at this temperature for up to 12 h. Slow cooking using a Δ10 programme had no significant (P < 0.05) effect on WBSF values of injected or non-injected SP and TB muscles but significantly (P < 0.05) decreased the WBSF values of injected and non-injected PP muscles when compared to conventional cooking. Slow cooking significantly (P < 0.05) increased % cook yield of injected PP, SP and TB muscles. Staged cooking significantly (P < 0.05) decreased the WBSF values and had no significant effect on sensory tenderness ratings of non-injected TB, SP and PP muscles and injected PP muscles. Staged cooked injected or non-injected PP, SP and TB muscles had lower % cook yield values than those cooked straight to 72 °C. Increasing the cooking time of injected PP muscles at 69 °C to 8 and 12 h decreased % cook yield, decreased WBSF values and increased sensory tenderness ratings. It also alleviated the problem of residual chewiness which was evident in PP muscles cooked using the other regimes.     

Effects of lactate/phosphate injection enhancement on oxidation stability and protein degradation in early postmortem beef cuts packaged in high oxygen modified atmosphere

The influence of lactate/phosphate enhancement on meat color and lipid oxidation stability, tenderness, protein degradation, and protein aggregation of early postmortem beef muscles packaged in a high oxygen modified atmosphere packaging (HiOx-MAP; 80% O₂, 20% CO₂) were studied. At 24 hr postmortem, three bovine muscles (longissimus, semimembranosus, and adductor; n = 10, respectively) were enhanced (10% injection rate) with either lactate (2.5%)/phosphate (0.3%) solution or water, packaged in HiOx-MAP, stored 9 days at 1 °C, and then displayed for 7 days at 1 °C. The lactate/phosphate injection significantly improved color stability (higher a* values) of all three bovine muscles throughout display period. Accumulation of lipid oxidation determined by 2-thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances values was also decreased (P < 0.05) in the lactate/phosphate injection compared to the water treatment during storage and display periods. The objective tenderness values of longissimus and semimembranosus were also improved (P < 0.05) by the lactate/phosphate enhancement treatment compared to the water treatment based on star probe measurement. There were no significant differences found in desmin and troponin-T degradation, or oxidative cross-linking of myosin between treatments. The results suggest that lactate/phosphate enhancement has beneficial effects on color and lipid oxidation stability, and tenderness development of beef cuts under HiOx-MAP conditions.     

Effects of supplementing feedlot steers and heifers with zilpaterol hydrochloride on Warner–Bratzler shear force interrelationships of steer and heifer longissimus lumborum and heifer triceps brachii and gluteus medius muscles aged for 7, 14 and 21 d

Longissimus lumborum (LL) muscles from 117 steers plus LL, gluteus medius (GM), and triceps brachii (TB) muscles from 132 heifers were evaluated for effects of feeding duration of zilpaterol hydrochloride (Zilmax®; ZH; 7.56 g/907 kg on a dry matter basis) and aging time on tenderness. Both genders were blocked by initial weight into six blocks of four pens. Pens were assigned to treatments of control (C), or 20, 30 or 40 days on ZH, with a 3 day withdrawal. Steaks from each subprimal were vacuum aged individually for 7, 14 or 21 days, frozen, thawed, and cooked to 71 °C for Warner–Bratzler shear force (WBSF). All muscles from steers and heifers from ZH30 and ZH40 treatments had higher (P < 0.05) WBSF than those of C. The WBSF of steer LL and heifer TB from the ZH20 treatment was higher (P < 0.05) than C. There was a treatment by aging interaction (P > 0.05) for WBSF of GM steaks from heifers. Percentage of intramuscular fat had little effect on tenderness. Percentages of steer LL and heifer TB steaks with WBSF values below thresholds of either 5.0 or 4.6 kg from the ZH20 treatment were quite high, whereas percentages of heifer LL and GM muscles below 5.0 kg (67%) and 4.6 kg (57%) were low. Feeding ZH ? 20 days generally increased WBSF values, but mean WBSF values for steer LL and heifer TB were below 4.6 kg. Feeding ZH 20 ? days resulted in >40% of GM steaks with WBSF values above 4.6 kg.     

Mutations in calpastatin and μ-calpain are associated with meat tenderness,flavor and juiciness in Hanwoo (Korean cattle): Molecular modeling of the effects of substitutions in the calpastatin/μ-calpain complex

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of seven single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in Calpain 1 and Calpastatin genes previously associated with meat tenderness attributes in other cattle breeds in Korean Hanwoo cattle. The Hanwoo resource population was used to study association of 7 SNPs with beef tenderness, flavor, juiciness, intramuscular fat and shear force. In this association study, CAST:c.182A > G (+ 0.14, P = 0.04) and CAST:c.1985G > C (− 0.12, P = 0.02) had significant effects on juiciness, but no effects on other traits. In contrast, CAPN1:c.1589G > A was associated with meat tenderness (P = 0.01) and juiciness (P = 0.04). The CAPN1:c.1589G > A (Val530Ile) SNP marker displayed significant effect on the meat tenderness score which is strongly supported by molecular modeling of the CAPN1:c.1589G > A (Val530Ile) variant that inhibits CAST protein from binding more strongly than the wild-type protein, which may explain its effect on meat tenderness.