History of co-operation in the Nile basin

A significant feature of the River Nile is its trans-boundary nature. The basin is shared among 10 riparian states. This trans-boundary character of the Nile presents a great challenge. At the heart of such a challenge is the imperative of poverty eradication. The sustainable development of the River Nile can help alleviate poverty by providing enhanced food, power and water security and associated employment creation. Co-operation in the Nile basin started in the form of bilateral agreements at the beginning of the last century. As an example of bilateral co-operation, in November 1959 Sudan and Egypt signed an agreement for the utilization of the shared waters of the River Nile. This agreement considers the rights of other riparian countries to the Nile waters. Countries of the Nile basin have been engaged in regional co-operative activities over the past 30 years: ‘HYDROMET’, 1967–1993; ‘TECCONILE’, 1993–1999; and ‘NBI’, 1998–present. The transitional mechanism was officially launched in February 1999 in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, by the Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of the Nile Basin States under the title of the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI). The NBI provides a unique forum for the countries of the Nile to move forward a co-operative process to realize tangible benefits in the basin and build a solid foundation of trust and confidence. The Nile basin countries have invested significant time, effort and resources into launching and sustaining the NBI. The NBI provides a transitional institutional mechanism for co-operation, an agreed vision and basin-wide framework, and a process to facilitate substantial investment in the Nile basin. It is based on the recognition that the basin has a shared past and a shared future, and that there is an urgent need for development and for the alleviation of poverty. It represents deep commitment by the Nile riparian countries to foster co-operation and pursue jointly the sustainable development and management of Nile water resources for the benefit of all.     

丰枯水年的沂沭河流域水资源优化配置分析

可持续发展是社会经济体系永恒的主题,立足于水资源可持续开发利用的目标对沂沭河流域水资源配置问题进行了系统研究。首先建立了可持续发展的目标集：经济目标、社会目标和生态目标,并选取了相应的可定量研究的指标值;然后利用多目标最优化模型进行该流域6个区域的规划年和远景规划年的水资源配置,由于丰枯水年出现的可能性,设置了这两种情形下的配置结果。并且基于该配置结果,给出了丰、枯水年条件下沂沭河流域各地区各用水部门的缺水量与缺水率,提出相应的对策建议。     

Allocating Water under Bankruptcy Scenario

Most of the transboundary river basins are contested due to the overlapping water demands of their riparian countries. Hence, these border crossing river basins are under immense pressure from the rising water demand. Thus, most of these essential fresh water resources could face water bankruptcy scenario in the future. The Nile river basin is one of these contested river basins. The demand for the river’s water is rising rapidly. Research studies indicated that the river basin could become water bankrupt in the near future. In this article the authors applied the classical bankruptcy water allocation rules for allocating the predicted available water of the river basin. In addition, the authors proposed an innovative way of accounting the water contribution of riparian states and also a mechanism for weighing the water deficit allotted to them. Generally, the authors hope that this article shades some light on allocation of water under water scarcity in the Nile river basin and in other border crossing river basins which could help for avoiding water conflicts and ensuring the sustainability of these crucial freshwater resources.     

Compensation and benefit sharing: Why resettlement policies and practices must be reformed

Many public and private sector projects, such as hydropower dams or mines, trigger forced population displacement but fail to resettle people sustainably and instead cause their impoverishment. Social science research has found that one root cause of such failures and of impoverishment is asset dispossession and the insufficient financing of resettlement. Most governments, however, state that （1） compensation alone is sufficient for restoring the income and livelihood of those displaced, and （2） resources to supplement compensation with additional financing are not available. The author critiques and rejects these positions. He offers a theoretical analysis of the limits and flaws of compensation payments for expropriated assets, and argues that resources are available for supplementing compensation with financial investments for resettlers＇ development. The sources for supplementary financing are the economic rent （windfall profits） generated by natural resource projects such as hydropower or mining and the regular stream of benefits generated by all projects that require resettlement. Further, the author argues that financial investments in resettlers＇ welfare are indispensable and what benefit sharing is feasible. Therefore, both should become basic principles of resettlement legislation and practice. In addition to theoretical analysis, the author documents with empirical evidence that some countries （China, Brazil, Canada, Columbia and Japan） already make investments additional to compensation for post-displacement reconstruction. The author sums up his argument in these key points： （1） Compensation alone cannot prevent the impoverishment of resettlers and cannot in itself restore and improve their livelihoods; （2） Additional financing is needed for direct investments in resettlement with development; （3） Compensation levels must be increased; （4） Financing resources are available in most cases for investing in resettlers＇ development, but allocation of investmen     

The Transboundary Impacts of Trade Liberalization and Climate Change on the Nile Basin Economies and Water Resource Availability

A multi-country, multi-sector computable general equilibrium (CGE) model is used for the first time to evaluate the economic and water resource availability effects of trade liberalization (removal of import tariffs) and facilitation (reducing non-tariff barriers) under climate change in the Nile Basin. The analysis uses the GTAP 9 Database and the GTAP-W model that distinguishes between rainfed and irrigated agriculture and implements water as a factor of production directly substitutable in the production process of irrigated agriculture. A full trade liberalization and improved trade facilitation scenario is considered with and without climate change. The study reveals that trade liberalization and facilitation generates substantial economic benefits and enhances economic growth and welfare in the Nile basin. The effect of instituting a free trade policy on water savings is found to be limited, while climate change improves water supply and hence irrigation water use, enhancing economic growth and welfare in the basin.     

Sustainable Development of International Waters and their Basins: Implementing the GEF Operational Strategy

If environmentally sustainable development goals are to be achieved for transboundary water resources, fundamental improvements over sector-by-sector development strategies are needed. This article describes the nature of needed improvements as well as lessons learned for multicountry cooperation in managing transboundary water resources. While global agreements, watercourse or basin organizations, and arbitration have fallen short of addressing conflicting priorities, joint institutional arrangements,such as those utilized by the International Joint Commission (Canada and USA), provide opportunities for: (1) creating a neutral ground for building trust among nations; (2) levelling the playing field among small and large nations; and (3) arranging joint mechanisms for working together on shared development of basins without relinquishing a country's sovereignty. The Global Environment Facility is playing a catalytic role in assisting countries in making the transition to comprehensive approaches for addressing transboundary water and land resource issues. The GEF Operational Strategy is described and lessons learned from its first five years are presented with a view to illustrating programmatic opportunities that cooperating nations can utilize for pursuing sustainable development of international waters and their basins.     

生态环境用水的实践

生态环境用水是关于水资源管理的一个综合性思维方法，可以为人类社会可持续发展发挥重要作用。近几十年来，这一科学概念得到越来越多国家的关注。但是，在生态环境用水的实践方面，发达国家和发展中国家存在巨大的差距。从政策与立法、管理策略和组织机构能力3方面对生态环境用水在世界其他国家和中国的实践进行了分析比较。通过研究得出国家政策与法律、国际协定、公众参与、市场机制、公众意识、技术支持和流域管理是影响生态环境用水实践的关键因素，并以此为依据明确了中国生态环境用水实践的现状，最后为如何推动中国生态环境用水的实践提出了建议。     

Asymmetry and Equity in Water Resources Management; Critical Institutional Issues for Southern Africa

Water users wish to achieve the highest benefits from water resources. Rules limit the manner in which water users may utilise the water resources occurring within their constituencies or territories. However an asymmetrical situation exists whereby downstream users may not affect upstream users but upstream users do cause downstream impacts. Because of this asymmetry the equitable sharing of water resources between upstream and downstream users will always imply that upstream users have to forego some potential water benefits. The general question that this paper addresses is: which institutional arrangements can be devised to (re-)establish an equilibrium between up- and downstream entities within a catchment area or river basin? The paper addresses this question by first focusing on some local and national water allocation arrangements. After briefly reviewing the different management regimes, customary and colonial, that co-evolved in Southern Africa, it assesses the water management principles that are currently being espoused. The focus then turns to the principles in international water law that deal with the allocation of water in transboundary river basins. It is concluded that it often proves difficult to reach agreement over how to share the scarce resource. The paper then discusses the current trend to look beyond water and beyond the river basin when seeking peaceful means to share a common water resource. The concept of “hydrosolidarity” emerges as a normative value that may help to recreate a balance between the various (asymmetrical) interests that exist within a river basin. The paper concludes that water resources can only be governed wisely is there is capacity to understand and monitor the water fluxes within a river basin. If such capacity is wanting, priority should be given to strengthen it.     

改进的风险决策及NSGA-Ⅱ方法在马莲河流域水资源综合管理中的应用

将马莲河流域系统概化为5个水资源分区,采用指标分析法进行2020和2030年供需水量预测和平衡分析。利用改进的决策树法进行风险分析,将专家咨询概率法引入到决策树敏感性分析中,最终得到2020、2030年的推荐水资源供需分配方案。然后,利用系统分析理论和优化技术建立了流域的大系统、多目标水资源优化配置模型,并采用优化的NSGA-Ⅱ方法进行求解,得到流域2030年推荐水资源配置方案下的最佳分配方案。最后,根据最佳分配方案和预测的流域需水量,进行了流域的水资源平衡分析,通过平衡分析的结果进行流域的综合管理研究。最佳配置方案实现了流域内水资源的最优分配,使宝贵、有限的水资源产生最大的社会、经济及环境效益,为流域经济、能源产业的快速发展提供水资源保障。     

The Nile Basin in a Global Perspective

Abstract

The Nile brings virtually no water to the sea. The mighty basin with 1/10 of Africa's land area and 1/3 of its population, has only 1/16 of its water. The riparian countries use practically all of the Nile's water and they face increasing challenges in terms of environmental degradation, food security, and socioeconomic development. The geopolitical situation blocks the integrated development of water resources in the basin scale, yet the political environment may be improving. The Nile basin is among the most critical regions of the world in terms of water resources development. In this article, the trends of the major driving forces within the basin countries—population, urbanization, climate, agriculture, economy, human resources, and governance—are scrutinized from the viewpoint of their impacts on water resources and their management. A comparison is made to four other critical macroregions: China, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and West Africa.     

石羊河流域水资源管理与分配方式探讨

水资源合理配置是实现水资源可持续利用的有效调控措施之一。目前,基于不同水权制度的水资源分配方式可分为公共(行政)手段分配、基于用水者的分配和水市场分配。介绍了这三种分配方式及其评价标准,指出每种分配方式在特定的水权制度下都有各自的优势与缺点,对特定分配方式的选择取决于不同的制度环境及水资源分配目标。以石羊河为例,应用水资源分配评价标准对流域现状进行综合评价,分析流域水资源开发利用存在的主要问题并提出石羊河流域水资源管理的建议。     

Regional cooperation and benefit sharing for sustainable water resources management in the Lower Mekong Basin

Benefit sharing is a concept associated with regional cooperation for sustainable water resources management. To this end, the present study analyses how implementation of this concept may contribute to economic growth and the promotion of sustainable livelihoods in the Lower Mekong Basin (LMB). It focuses on the balance between economic and human development, national interests, and the procedures used to manage water resources in the basin. It was found that: (a) Benefits obtained from the Mekong River are not equally shared between riparian countries because of inadequate regional cooperation, with economic and social development in the LMB being uneven, with Thailand and Vietnam achieving better human development, poverty reduction and food security outcomes than Laos and Cambodia; (b) Lack of shared national interests, or a common development agenda, has resulted in unsustainable water resource management outcomes; and (c) Procedures for water resources management agreed by the four LMB countries are well‐aligned with the conceptual framework for benefit sharing defined by Sadoff and Grey (2002, Water Policy, 4, 389), although while these procedures have the potential to facilitate a more cooperative agenda for equitable sharing of social, economic and environmental benefits from the water resources of the Mekong River, implementation of the 1995 Mekong Agreement currently remains controversial. The five procedures for water resource management developed by the Mekong River Commission have not resulted in satisfactory outcomes, due in part to the institution lacking regulatory authority.     

疏勒河流域水资源可持续利用与保护探讨

结合当前流域水资源与生态资源可持续利用的需要,探讨疏勒河流域及其下游生态环境的开发利用,指出区域经济与水土资源可持续利用必须坚持以生态建设和环境保护为重点、合理利用的策略,优化配置,因地制宜,正确把握人口、资源、环境与经济发展的辩证关系,协调处理好长期与近期、整体与局部的利益。     

Water, Food, and Energy Security: An Elusive Search for Balance in Central Asia

The development and use of water resources in the Amu Darya Basin remain under debate in the face of increasing population and associated scarcities in water, food, and energy. The upstream riparian, the mountain nation of Tajikistan, wishes to develop its hydropower potential. Three downstream states wish to sustain or increase their economic benefits from water used for irrigation. Growing tensions among the riparian countries on the Vakhsh River, a tributary of Amu Darya, have halted development of Tajikistan’s proposed Rogun Dam. This paper examines the potential for mutually beneficial water development and allocation of water resources to sustain demands for water, food, and energy. Using long-term data on the Basin’s energy potential, water supplies, irrigated land, and crop water demands, this paper analyzes total economic welfare for a future 20-year time horizon. Two water supply scenarios for each of two policy choices are examined. Results show that a constrained economic optimization operation of the Dam has the potential to increase farm income for each riparian country, while producing considerable benefits in hydropower for Tajikistan. Political negotiation among the riparian states and much better data will be needed to discover and implement potential gains indicated by this study.     

Financing Irrigation Water Management and Infrastructure: A Review

Many of the world's irrigated regions face the problem of aging infrastructure and declining revenues to maintain and repair irrigation structures. Policy debates over climate change, population growth, food security, and impacts of irrigation on ecological assets compound the problem, raising the urgency to invest in irrigation infrastructure. Meanwhile, a global call for full-cost recovery for water infrastructure investments increases the need to identify the economic value of sustaining irrigation infrastructure. Despite the growing debates, little comprehensive research has been conducted summarizing factors affecting irrigation investments or policy options available for sustaining irrigation infrastructure. This paper reviews research on factors affecting the level and value of irrigation infrastructure investments. It also reviews research on policy instruments for sustaining irrigation infrastructure, considering both market and institutional approaches. Several market approaches have been found to have the potential to influence the economic attractiveness of investments in irrigation infrastructure. These include infrastructure subsidies, clearing titles to water rights, marginal cost pricing, and non-volumetric pricing. Institutional approaches described include regulatory measures, transboundary agreements, and water user associations. Results may contribute to current debates in various regional, national, and international forums on whether and how water should be priced for agricultural use.     

石羊河流域水权管理制度框架研究

石羊河流域地处内陆干旱区,是典型的资源性缺水地区。水权制度建设是优化水资源配置的基础工作,将区域水权分配与行业取水许可管理有机结合,对高效配置水资源,建立和完善流域水市场,实现流域水资源的可持续利用和经济社会的发展有重要的现实意义。本文以石羊河流域水资源开发利用现状为依据,尊重历史,承认现实,统筹生产、生活和生态用水,提出流域的水权内涵、界定原则和初始水权分配方案;并对开展流域水权交易和水权管理的制度体系建设提出了相关建议,为石羊河流域水资源合理配置,确定水权分配方案,开展水权交易,建设水权管理制度等提供理论依据。     

浅析金鸡拦河闸在晋江下游水量分配中的作用

介绍了晋江流域水量分配的基本原则及晋江下游金鸡拦河闸水量分配的方案,分析了金鸡拦河闸重建工程对晋江下游水量分配的重要作用,以及工程投运以来良好的社会与经济效益。     

对引江济太调水试验工程的初步认识和探讨

引江济太调水试验工程自2002年实施以来,取得了显著的经济效益和社会效益,是太湖流域实施由汛期调度向全年调度,由水量调度向水资源综合调度的有益尝试.通过对引江济太作用和效果的分析,阐述了在流域综合治理的总体框架下,统筹协调各方面关系,解决经济社会发展和水生态环境之间的突出矛盾和问题,强调要以流域水资源配置和改善流域水生态环境为重点.加强工程和非工程设施建设和运行管理,实现洪涝相机调度,探索和实践流域管理的新策略.     

论气候压力下的跨国水体协议

全球气候变化无疑会影响河流的来水过程和供水过程,改变河流的水质、水量和水系统运行,使当今跨国水体可持续管理复杂化。然而,目前大部分跨国水体协议缺少处理应对气候挑战的重要措施,没有充分考虑不断变化的气候、社会、经济和状况。跨国水体的分享可能会导致两国或多国之间发生冲突,但也可以成为合作和谈判的源泉。共同应对气候的挑战,为未来的跨国水体管理找到新的方法提供了一个平台。尽管各流域国之间存在政治和社会差异、利益冲突等,但制定灵活而又有效的跨国水体协议以减轻气候变化的不利影响是极其需要且完全有可能的,措施有：①灵活的水分配策略;②精确的数据和信息交换;③综合的水质管理;④应对极端事件的策略;⑤对原有跨国水体协议的修订;⑥联合管理委员会的成立和完善。     

长江流域水量分配方案研究的思路及重点

长江流域水资源相对丰富，是流域社会发展的源泉。但随着三峡水库的蓄水发电、南水北调工程的实施及流域内取用水的增长，流域内现有的盐水入侵、部分地区缺水问题和水生态与环境问题终将逐步显现．甚至恶化。因此，需要开展流域水资源的合理调配和水量分配方案的研究，制定区域经济社会发展的水量分配方案和取水总量控制目标，并配套相关的法律法规，确保流域水资源的合理调配和可持续开发利用。