荷兰住房协会——社会住房建设和管理的非政府模式

荷兰社会住房比例在全欧洲最高,其社会住房主要由住房协会建设和管理.文章追溯了住房协会的发展历程以及对荷兰政府不同住房政策的反应,总结了住房协会的双重二元特征:私人机构但是却承担了公共责任,是资金来源于政府的NGO组织.在1990年代资金独立之后,公共使命和从事市场活动成为了住房协会新的特征.文章还分析了住房协会在与政府、协会之间以及居民的关系中所扮演的的不同角色,反映了其各项职能.此外,对荷兰住房协会管理的模式进行了总结和反思,以期对我国的保障性住房建设提供借鉴和思考.     

The Uneven Development of 'Social Rented Housing': Explaining the Historically Marginal Position of Housing Associations in Britain

The first part of this paper is concerned with rethinking the notion of social rented housing, arguing that it is appropriate to refer to a dual social rented sector, both now and in the past, and to set municipal and non-municipal models of provision alongside the dominant consumption side models of mass and residual social housing. The idea of uneven development of social rented housing in Britain refers to the numerical dominance of local authority provision, and the insignificant quantitative contribution of housing associations and their predecessors until the last years of the 20th century. The second part of the paper poses the question of why the voluntary sector failed to thrive after 1918, and examines some historical evidence from four key periods up to the early 1960s. It is argued that the poor performance of these organisations immediately after 1918 led to them failing to overcome local authority opposition and civil service scepticism in the 1930s.     

寻求社会公正与融合的可持续途径:荷兰社会住宅的发展与现状

作为世界上住房保障制度最为完善的国家之一,荷兰自20世纪初期以来长期重视社会住宅,即公有出租的保障性住房的规划和建设,将其作为解决城市住房问题、促进社会公正的主要方式,并根据社会经济背景的变化对其发展政策和策略进行合理的调整.与此同时,荷兰也已将社会住宅的规划建设作为解决社会问题,特别是克服不同收入阶层与种族间的居住空间隔离问题,促进社会融合的重要手段之一.本文将结合政策与实例分析对荷兰社会住宅发展进行具体探讨,以期对我国目前的保障性住房规划建设提供借鉴.     

Social Housing as a Transitional Tenure? Reflections on the Netherlands' New Housing Memorandum 2000-2010

This contribution gives some reflections on the Netherlands' New Housing Memorandum 2000-2010, which was published on 15 May 2000. This Housing Memorandum urges the housing corporations (the social housing organisations which own 37 per cent of the housing stock) to sell 500 000 dwellings in 10 years. This seems to confirm Harloe's assertion that social housing in Europe is only a transitional tenure. Even in the Netherlands-champion of social rented housing within the European Union-the owner occupied sector would seem destined to marginalise the social rented sector in the long run. This paper argues that the housing corporations, being private, independent social entrepreneurs, will be only partially inclined to take the political message of the Housing Memorandum to heart. It is expected that the Dutch social rented sector will remain a differentiated sector and continue to blossom alongside home ownership. Harloe's theory will, in short, not be confirmed by the housing developments in the Netherlands.     

Housing and care for older adults with dementia: a European perspective

The ageing of society goes together with an increasing number of older adults with dementia. This group has specific housing and care needs reflecting their physical and mental health status, which has implications for the housing market, the public housing task, and the related provision of care. Within the European Union, there are various care and welfare regimes that constitute an underlying cause of the broad range of solutions chosen to organise care and housing of older adults with dementia. These regimes also account for the large differences that exist in the current housing situation of older adults with dementia in relation to the level of care they receive and the involvement of relatives. The paper zooms in on the situation in the Netherlands, where national policies focus on (1) ageing-in-place, (2) the separation of residence and care, and (3) substitution of institutional by non-institutional types of living. Within institutional settings, a transition is made towards small-scale group accommodation (SSGA) for older adults with dementia. Solutions within the domain of care consist of facilitating family carers, whereas housing solutions are directed to SSGA and use of technology and implementation of modifications to the living environment.     

Devolution and Housing Associations in Great Britain: Enhancing Organisational Accountability?

This paper evaluates, through a fourfold framework, the extent to which devolution in Great Britain has enhanced the organisational accountability of housing associations three years after the creation of the Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales. The evaluation framework examines the goals set for social housing organisations, the processes by which they are set, and the ways in which goals are monitored and enforced. The assessment reveals that, whilst it would be a mistake to suggest that housing policies and administrative frameworks have been traditionally monolithic across Britain, there is evidence that they are now diverging further, and that policy priorities for housing associations are coming to reflect local circumstances and locally-determined decisions to a greater extent than hitherto. The utility of the evaluation framework is thus demonstrated. It is concluded that the organisational accountability of housing associations has been enhanced alongside, and, to some extent, as a result of, devolution.     

Dutch Personal Income Tax Reform 2001: An Exceptional Position for Owner-occupied Housing

This paper examines how personal income taxation has changed across countries and whether and how this has affected the taxation of owner-occupied dwellings. It presents a partial analysis as it focuses on imputed rent taxation and the mortgage interest deduction. Furthermore, the paper places housing taxation in a wider context by describing different benchmarks which could be used to assess the taxation of owner-occupied housing in different types of personal income tax. These international and theoretical points-of-departure are used to evaluate the taxation of owner-occupied housing in the Netherlands. The paper concludes that all along political arguments have conquered theoretical premises to the advantage of the owner occupier in comparison to the private landlord. It also concludes that the theoretical base in 2001 has become so weak that owner-occupied housing is in an exceptional position in comparison with other private wealth thus becoming an easy victim for future tax savings.     

荷兰的社会住宅：明确的传统与未知的将来

在荷兰,社会（公有）出租的住房的比重占到了35％——是欧盟范围内这一比例最高的国家。这一部门是在1901年住房法确立的公共框架下由独立经营的住房协会所主导的。本文阐述了住房协会在1995年“总收益与收支平衡实施办法”执行前后的历史渊源和发展变化。自从这一办法实施以来,住房协会不再扶政府接受实物补贴。但是．它们却变得愈加富有。这一点将会影响住房协会的社会形象。由于结合了社会与市场行为,在坚实的公共框架下运作、并经营高品质多样化的住宅,荷兰的社会住宅可为其他欧盟国家、俄罗斯和中国提供借鉴。     

The changing role of the Dutch social rented sector

The article traces the evolution of the research interests of Dieleman, an academic who combined the development of analytical models with explorations of the policy implications of the changing structure of housing markets. During his long career as a professor of geography, he championed international cooperation in research and played a major role in disseminating the results of Dutch academic studies to an international audience. His own work was concentrated on the analysis of residential mobility. But much of that work also revealed his interest in applying scholarly insights to policy issues. Throughout his career he showed a deep commitment to improving the functioning of the social rented sector in the Dutch housing market. After reviewing some of Dieleman’s major contributions to the understanding of the housing market, the article follows in his footsteps by analyzing the current use of social rented housing. In this way, this article provides an update on his field of interest based on recent survey data that underlines the validity of his insights.     

法国社会住宅政策的演变及其启示

法国社会住宅系统创立于19世纪中叶工业革命以后,二战后逐步发展完善,形成了以政府贷款、补贴等优惠政策为刺激,通过公私舍作的方式建设管理社会住宅的系统。社会住宅系统起到了解决贫困人1：2居住问题,缓解社会矛盾,调控房地产市场等多种作用。但社会住宅空间分布集中,建设规模偏大等原因,造成了1980年代以来法国严重的居住隔离问题。2000年以后,法国确立了通过社会住宅的重新分布实现社会混和的战略目标。文章通过对法国社会住宅政策演变历程的回顾,总结出它的成功与失败之处．并结合国内的实际情况、提出中国应加大政府的财政投入、扩大融资方式,建立以租赁为主的保障性住房系统,并以此调控厉地产市场;同时注意通过综合规划,防止居住隔离现象进一步加剧,维持社会的和谐稳定。     

Displaced but still Moving Upwards in the Housing Career? Implications of Forced Residential Relocation in the Netherlands

The housing stock is being restructured in many Dutch post-war neighbourhoods. Through demolition and upgrading of social rented housing and the construction of new owner occupied dwellings, the housing stock and the living environment are being improved. This policy has triggered major residential moves in and beyond some neighbourhoods, partly involuntary. Residents whose dwelling is being demolished or heavily upgraded, are usually forced to move elsewhere. Knowledge of the social implications of forced relocation in the Netherlands is limited, especially on experiences and opinions of relocated households. This paper covers research in two recently restructured neighbourhoods. Movers were recruited to share their experiences and opinions in focus groups and interviews. Surprisingly, many movers were able to improve their housing situation, mostly due to their priority rights in the housing market. However, movers who were less able to take advantage of these rights reported a certain degree of degradation. Moreover, it appears that relocation processes must still be improved in order to reduce stress and refine communication with residents.     

Housing Consumption and Financial Policy Instruments in the Netherlands

Reforming the system of financial instruments on the housing market is a recurring issue. This paper constructs a model explaining household behaviour, in particular the effects of prices and income on the tenure choice and the level of housing consumption. It analyses the effects that may be expected of fundamental changes of financial policy instruments in the Netherlands: (1) a conversion of below market rents to market rent levels; (2) a switch from the current fiscal system for owner-occupiers to a general lump sum tax reduction; and (3) a combination of these measures. The results indicate that the initial disadvantageous effects on the housing costs are large, but the behavioural response of households and the expected changes of price levels considerably reduce or even eliminate longrun effects. Since the effects may be substantial for individual households, a well-considered transition path, as is done in other countries, should be used.     

适应多元居住需求的住房规划管理体系--日本住房制度变迁的启示

目前我国住房的核心矛盾已经从供需不足转为供需不匹配,相应的制度亟待改革。本文参考经历过类似转变时期的日本,从完善法律体系、供给体系及规划实施体系三方面入手进行考察,探讨做什么、谁去做以及怎样做三个问题。首先,相对于管理,日本住房体制更关注保障居住权利,并通过法律法规明确各方责任,形成权力制约。其次,政府并不直接提供住房,而是鼓励多方合作,从刚性"管制"转为弹性"引导"。最后,通过完善的统计系统和监督体制、相对独立的住房规划体系、切实可行的居住质量和居住面积等指标体系来确保有效提供住房。日本所有的住房政策都明确地指向一个目标:解决不同人群的多元居住需求,并通过细致严谨的规划管理体系保障实施,这对于我国从居住需求角度出发改革住房制度具有很好的借鉴作用。     

Regeneration of Dutch post-war urban districts: the role of housing associations

In the Netherlands the regeneration of post-war urban districts is closely intertwined with the role of housing associations. This is hardly surprising, given that the housing associations have such a large share of the market (usually over 50%; sometimes nearly 100%) in many early post-war urban districts. This has caused a growing concentration of low-income households in those urban areas and a selective migration by middle- and high-income households from the city to the suburb. Official government policy on housing and urban renewal is directed at a redifferentiation of the urban housing stock. Specifically, the policy promotes more owner-occupation, larger and higher-quality homes, and a greater percentage of homes with a garden. This implies the demolition of social housing estates and selling social housing. The position of housing associations in the regeneration of Dutch post-war urban districts is somewhat enigmatic. On the one hand, national government is expecting them to take initiative and invest in urban renewal; on the other, government is urging them to cut down their market share. How are housing associations coping with this paradoxical challenge? And what are the current national policies about the position of housing associations? Aedes (the umbrella organisation of Dutch housing associations) and the Dutch Ministry of Housing have agreed upon the so-called great transition of housing associations. Here we explain and critique this great transition, which will hamper the current regeneration of Dutch urban districts. As an alternative we present the new transition.     

The Long Road to Housing Sector Reform: Lessons from the Chilean Housing Experience

The Chilean housing policy, which anticipated the enabling approach widely advocated by international institutions in the 1990s, has succeeded in improving housing conditions in the country. The analysis of this experience indicates that this success only partially comes from reforms in the housing sector, and that its financial mechanisms are the result of reforms in capital markets and a stable macroeconomic environment. Lessons from this experience include the need for an integrated approach to reform including housing production and financing mechanisms and the full consideration and prevention of the urban impacts of housing policies that succeed in increasing housing production.     

Consumers' Responses to Choice-based Letting Mechanisms

During the 1990s a large majority of the social rented sector managers in the Netherlands shifted towards an advert model of allocation in place of a waiting list system. This paper focuses on the consumer's response to this new letting mechanism. Three case studies were conducted, geared to evaluate consumers' appreciation and understanding of the advert model. Various additional local, regional or national evaluations are used to put the findings from the case studies in perspective. Generally, the public appreciates the advert model more than the distribution system. However, insufficient understanding of the complex do-it-yourself allocation system affects appreciation of the system and access to vacancies both negatively. On average, people on low income and ethnic minority members (overlapping groups) were more prone to lack of understanding and were less successful applicants as a result. Moreover, the allocation mechanism has not changed differences in resources and bargaining power and its effects on the outcome of the allocation process.     

Moving Up or Moving Down? Housing Careers of Turks and Moroccans in Utrecht,the Netherlands

In the Netherlands, the housing conditions of most ethnic minorities are still inferior to those of the native Dutch. The focus of the paper is the housing careers of Turks and Moroccans in the city of Utrecht. Despite some improvements and certain exceptions, they still find themselves in housing conditions inferior to those of the native Dutch. A career approach is necessary to explain these less favourable housing conditions because the present situation cannot be seen separately from decisions taken earlier. Some of these decisions are taken in the field of housing, but it is argued here that decisions taken on the labour market and with respect to the household itself are of major importance. It is also argued that the ethnic cultural approach, which stresses the housing preferences of minority ethnic groups, does not adequately explain the housing conditions and housing careers of the Turks and Moroccans in the Netherlands.