Emulsion and Storage Stabilities of Emulsions Incorporating Mechanically Deboned Poultry Meat and Various Soy Flours

The stability of emulsions formulated with mechanically deboned poultry in combination with various levels (10%, 15%, 20%, and 25%) of rehydrated vegetable protein flour (VPF), 50% protein; soy concentrate flour (SCF), 70% protein; or soy isolate flour (SIF), 90% protein were determined. VPF emulsions had significantly better emulsion stability than those with SCF or SIF. Flour type had no effect on storage stability (2-thiobarbituric acid values, tensile strength, dominant wavelength, or sensory evaluation); however, SIF emulsions had significantly higher microbiological counts than emulsions incorporating VPF or SCF. Rehydrated flour level had no effect on stability with the exception of higher tensile strength values at lower rehydrated flour levels.     

Yields, Color and Compositions of Washed, Kneaded and Heated Mechanically Deboned Poultry Meat

Kamaboko-like products, prepared with NaCl and phosphate buffer wash solutions, had higher yields compared to those prepared with Na-acetate and polyphosphate solutions. Products prepared with polyphosphate wash solution were lightest in color. Higher fat in mechanically deboned poultry meat caused lower yields than lower fat. There were no interactions (P>0.05) between the temperatures and salt concentrations of the wash solutions on yields of products washed with various concentrations of NaCl. Products prepared with NaCl wash solutions at 2–4^oC had higher yields than those prepared at 20–22^oC. Generally, products prepared with 1.0% or 1.5% NaCl wash solutions had higher Hunter “L” values and lower Hunter “a” values when compared to those prepared with 0 or 0.5% NaCl washing solutions.     

Extraction of Pigments from Mechanically Deboned Turkey Meat

Several extraction procedures were tested to lighten the color and improve textural characteristics of mechanically deboned turkey meat. An extensive extraction of heme pigments was achieved when 0.04M phosphate buffer with a pH of 8.0 was used. Lightness of MDTM increased by 51. I%, redness decreased by 64.0%, and yellowness increased by 26.0% over untreated raw MDTM when measured objectively. Sensory analyses of cooked patties made from extracted MDTM from necks and ground turkey breast indicated that breast meat products could be formulated with 5–20% washed MDTM without significantly affecting overall sensory quality.     

Mechanically Deboned Pork Use in Fermented Meat Spreads

Proportions (25, 50 and 100%, w/w) of mechanically deboned pork (MDP) were evaluated for use in spreads fermented with Pediococcus pentosauceus or chemically acidified. Microbiological stability was examined at 2–4, 5, 8–10, and 24° C, with or without inoculated Staphylococcus aureus. Microbiological, color, texture, pH, TBA, and proximate composition were studied in relation to product formulation and processing. Fat retention and product spreadability were attained by combining up to 50% MDP, preemulsified with soy protein isolate (SPI) or sodium caseinate (SC), with pork and beef trimming preblended with NaCl and phosphate. These were fermented with Pendiococcus pentosauceus (40° C and 85% RH, 18 h). Potato starch (2%) was added and product was comminuted postfermentation. Unlike formulations with SPI, those containing SC exhibited good microbiological stability, with no Enterobacteriaceae, and S. aureus decreased.     

Development of Sausages Containing Mechanically Deboned Chicken Meat Hydrolysates

Pork meat sausages were prepared using protein hydrolysates from mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM). In terms of the color, compared to the controls before and after storage, the redness (a*) was significantly higher in sausages containing MDCM hydrolysates, ascorbate, and sodium erythorbate. After storage, compared to the other sausage samples, the yellowness (b*) was lower in the sausages containing ascorbate and sodium erythorbate. TBARS was not significantly different among the sausage samples before storage, whereas TBARS and DPPH radical scavenging activities were significantly higher in the sausagescontainingascorbate and sodium erythorbate, compared to the other sausage samples after 4 wk of storage. In terms of sensory evaluation, the color was significantly higher in the sausages containing MDCM hydrolysates, ascorbate, and sodium erythorbate, compared to the other sausage samples after 4 wk of storage. The “off‐flavor” and overall acceptability were significantly lower in the sausages containing MDCM hydrolysates than in the other sausage samples.     

Extraction of Lipid and Pigment Components from Mechanically Deboned Chicken Meat

Three washing solutions were tested to reduce color and remove fat from mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM). MDCM was mixed with either 0.5% sodium bicarbonate, 0.1% acetate buffer, or tap water and passed through a 3.9 mm mesh screen. The meat retained by the screen (captured meat, CM) and the solution passing through the screen (not-captured, NC) were centrifuged separately. All extraction treatments resulted in significant reductions in fat with the NC meat being significantly lower in fat than the captured meat regardless of the wash media. Bicarbonate washed CM was significantly lighter in color (L*= 64.1) than all other extraction treatments and lighter and less red (a*=4.5) than the MDCM (L*= 49.2, a*= 9.0).     

Continuous Restructuring of Mechanically Deboned Chicken Meat by HTST Extrusion-Cooking

The continuous restructuring of mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDM) was attempted using twin-screw extrusion-cooking at high moisture contents (50-80%), high temperatures (ca 150°C), short residence times (30-240 sec) and low pressures (below 6 bars). The hardness, cohesiveness and water-holding capacity of the nonexpanded moist extruded samples are optimal and resemble those of meat-loaf when 10-20% wheat flour or pregelatinized corn starch are added to MDM. Incorporation of 25% soy protein isolate gives a solid gel matrix containing dispersed meat particles. Scaling up this process could lead to the continuous production of simulated meat chunks or slices for use in canned or frozen dishes.     

Cholesterol Content of Beef Bone Marrow and Mechanically Deboned Meat

Marrow from cervical, lumbar and femur bones of 5 steers and 5 cows fed only on native range (grass fed) and 5 steers and 5 cows fed a finishing ration (grain fed) was analyzed for cholesterol content. The cholesterol content of the marrow was significantly different when diet or anatomical locations were compared. Bovine marrow from grass-fed animals averaged 119.6 mg/100g and marrow from grain-fed animals averaged 150.6 mg/100g marrow. The cholesterol content of marrow from the cervical, lumbar, and femur was 190.1, 124.1, and 91.0 mg/100g marrow, respectively. Mechanically deboned meat (MDM) and beef lean had a mean cholesterol content of 153.3 and 50.9 mg/100g tissue. Spinal cord material in MDM can account for the increased concentration of cholesterol in some MDM samples over the values for lean and marrow.     

POULTRY PRODUCT QUALITY. 1. Compositional Changes During Cooking of Turkey Roasts

SUMMARY: White and dark turkey roasts, averaging 7.1 and 3.1 lb respectively, were made with meat taken from selected samples of the various entries in the Pennsylvania Turkey Random Sample Meat Test. Additional róasts were made from sample birds from the University research flock. Roasts were wrapped in aluminum foil, then cooked in a Telkes oven. All roasts were cooked to an internal temperature of 170°F. There were no sex differences in cooking losses except when skin was examined separately. Differences in cooking losses were observed in the breast meat but not in the thigh meat of roasts prepared from Bronze and White turkeys. Losses were higher for breast meat than for thigh meat. There was an indication that size of bird was not a significant factor in determining percentage cooking losses for breast and thigh roasts. When fat drippings from cooked skin were analyzed for carbonyl content high skin yielding males were characterized by the high concentration of the 2-enals in relation to the methyl ketones. Low skin groups consisted mainly of methyl ketones.     

Gamma Ray Processing to Destroy Staphylococcus aureus in Mechanically Deboned Chicken Meat

Gamma radiation doses of 0.26 kGy and 0.36 kGy, administered in vacuo at 0°C, destroyed 90% of log-phase and stationary-phase colony forming units (CFU) of Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 13565 (FDA 196E), respectively, in mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM). Samples inoculated with 10^3.9 CFU/g of S. aureus were treated with gamma radiation in vacuo at 0°C and then held for 20 hr at 35°C (abusive storage). Viable CFU were found in samples irradiated to 0.75 kGy but not in those irradiated to 1.50 kGy either before or after storage. Enterotoxin was not detected in irradiated MDCM. A predictive equation was developed for the response of S. aureus in MDCM to radiation dose and irradiation temperature.     

Selected Washing Processes Affect Thermal Gelation Properties and Microstructure of Mechanically Deboned Chicken Meat

Cooked mechanically deboned chicken meat (MDCM), washed with tap water, 0.5% sodium bicarbonate, sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.2; ionic strength, 0.1), or 0.1M sodium chloride had increased (P lt;0.05) gel strength compared to unwashed MDCM. The selected washing solutions affected (P lt;0.05) lightness (HunterLab L values) of washed meat, and also had a slight (Plt;0.05) influence on water-holding capacity and textural properties. These differences were attributed to pH and washing solvent residue in the washed MDCM. Scanning electron microscopy revealed distinct differences between the washed and unwashed MDCM. The washed meat showed a fibrous protein network structure resulting from protein gelation.     

Effect of Auger- and Press-Type Mechanical Deboning Machines on Selected Characteristics of Mechanically Deboned Poultry

Selected chemical, functional, textural, and sensory properties were evaluated for mechanically deboned poultry (MDP) prepared from three auger-type (Paoli, Beehive, and Yieldmaster) and one press-type (Protecon) mechanical deboners. Protecon MDP, prepared without a preliminary grinding of the in-going raw material, contained slightly larger intact muscle fibers than MDP from the auger-type machines. Although variation occurred among the four meats, no significant differences (P7>0.05) were observed in their composition. Differences existed in the emulsifying capacity, emulsion stability, and waterholding capacity of the meats; however, all were successfully used in the preparation of acceptable frankfurters. Frankfurters prepared from Protecon or Beehive MDP were generally firmer, as determined by shear tests and sensory evaluations.     

Protein Efficiency Ratio and Amounts of Selected Nutrients in Mechanically Deboned Spent Layer Meat

Three types of mechanically deboned spent layer meat (MDSL) were found to have adjusted protein efficiency ratios (PER) equivalent or superior to a standard (casein) diet. These same materials proved to be good sources of calcium, iron and zinc. Percentage protein ranged from 15.39 for MDSL from whole spent layers to 16.55 for MDSL from spent layer frames with wings. Fat levels were highest for whole birds (20.41%) and lowest for frames without skin (16.84%). High levels of unsaturated fatty acids were found to be associated with these products.     

A Simple Method for Estimating Amount of Red Marrow Present in Mechanically Deboned Meat

Muscle:red marrow mixtures containing 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% marrow (w/w) were prepared to simulate the widest range of red marrow percentages which might be found in mechanically deboned meat (MDM). Significant increases in pH with each increase in marrow concentration and a correlation coefficient of 0.96 between marrow concentration and pH were found. Therefore, pH values can be used to estimate red marrow concentration in MDM once average values for pH of meat attached to bones and marrow in those bones are established at individual deboning operations. Level of red marrow in MDM is related to functional properties such as water holding capacity as well as nutritional value and palatability.     

POULTRY PRODUCT QUALITY. 3. Organoleptic Evaluation of Cooked Chicken and Turkey Skin Fractions as Affected by Storage Time and Temperature

SUMMARY: Cooked turkey and chicken skin residue and separated drippings or oil were stored at various temperatures then presented to a trained taste panel for flavor evaluation. Panel members were able to discriminate between a control (unstored) and a sample of residue after 3 wk of storage at 40°F. They were not able to differentiate between control and treatment (stored) oil even after 7 wk of storage. When chicken skin residue and oil were evaluated after storage at 40°F the panel members could detect differences between the residue samples at 3 wk, but unlike the turkey oil stored at the same temperature they indicated discriminatory ability after 1 wk of storage. When both cooked chicken and turkey skin fractions were presented to the panel at the same time without a reference control (unstored) they were able to identify differences but could not indicate a clear preference for either one.     

Color, Pigment and Iron Content of Meat Loaves with Blood, Blood Emulsion, or Mechanically Deboned Meat Added

The hemoglobin, myoglobin, and iron content in slaughter-house blood, a blood emulsion, mechanically deboned meat (MDM) and meat minces with these raw materials added, were determined. Blood and blood emulsion were added in the range 0-5%. MDM was added as a substitute for ground beef. The pigment and iron content in the minces were compared with the surface color of heated meat loaves produced. Minces containing blood yielded lighter meat loaves upon heating (i.e. a higher lightness L* was observed) than did minces containing blood emulsion or MDM, even if the amounts of extractable hemoglobin and myoglobin in the minces were equal. At equal concentrations of iron, minces with blood and MDM gave lighter meat loaves than did minces to which blood emulsion had been added.     

POULTRY PRODUCT QUALITY. 4. levels of Carbonyl Compounds in Fresh, Uncooked Chicken and Turkey Skin

SUMMARY— The complex nature of poultry flavor prevents any single, complete characterization of its source. The contribution of the sulfur compounds to the flavor of the meat has received attention and recently the carbonyl-related off-flavor development in further processed products has become a problem. In order to determine the carbonyl compounds available in row poultry skin, the hexane soluble extract of ground skin was reacted with DNPhydrozine. The derivatives formed were fractionated by column and thin layer chromatography and quantified spectrophotometrically. Male and female chickens and turkeys were raised on standard diets to selected ages to study the influence of age, sex and group of birds on the level and composition of carbonyl compounds. The particular carbonyls investigated were the total carbonyls, the total monocarbonyl fraction and the specific aliphatic monocarbonyl classes. Data showed higher levels of total carbonyl and total monocarbonyl compounds in mole turkeys than in females until both were quite mature. Within the chicken samples, there was no appreciable difference due to either sex or age. The only methyl ketone found in any of the samples was acetone. The male turkeys had an increase in acetone concentration from 20 wk to a max at 24 wk, the same time at which lipid composition was the lowest. During the same time the female turkey maintained a relatively constant methyl ketone level. At 30 wk both sexes exhibited the lower concentration of acetone. Chicken skin data consistently displayed low acetone concentrations similar to that of the female turkeys.