Development of double-stage ADR for future space missions

We report a development of a portable dewar with a double-stage ADR in it, and its cooling test results. The purpose of this system is to establish a cooling cycle of double-stage adiabatic demagnetization from 4.2 K to 50 mK, which is strongly desired for future space science missions. In our test dewar, two units of ADR are installed in parallel at the bottom of a liquid He tank. We used 600 g of GGG (Gadolinium Gallium Garnet) for the higher temperature stage (4 Tesla) and ∼90 g of CPA (Chromic Potassium Alum) for the lower temperature stage (3 Tesla). A passive gas-gap heat switch (PGGHS) is used between these two stages, while a mechanical heat switch between the He tank and the GGG stage. Using this system, 50 mK was achieved, and various kinds of cooling cycles with different operating temperatures and different sequences of magnetization were tested. We also evaluated the performance of the PGGHS, and interference of the magnetic field with each other during a stable temperature control.     

A closed cycle He-He dilution refrigerator insensitive to gravity

The cooling power and the lifetime of an open cycle dilution refrigerator as developed for the Planck mission (100 nW at 100 mK during 30 months) are limited by the quantity of the helium isotopes carried on the satellite at launch, because the helium mixture obtained after the dilution process is rejected into space. Future space missions require to increase the cooling power and lifetime significantly (1 μW at 50 mK during 5 years).Therefore we are extending the open cycle dilution refrigerator with a helium isotope separator operating at 1 K to close the cycle. A first prototype to demonstrate the principle of the closed cycle dilution refrigerator has been tested and a cooling power of 1 μW at temperatures below 60 mK has been obtained. We present the apparatus and the experimental results and give some elements for its integration in a complete cooling chain. The advantages (continuous operation, absence of magnetic field, less weight) of a closed cycle dilution refrigerator with respect to an adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator are also discussed.     

Reliability assessment of indium solder for low temperature electronic packaging

Indium is the choice of material for cryogenic joining applications. It is superior under repeated wide temperature excursions including extreme cold temperatures (below −55 °C) because of its excellent electrical conductivity and ductility at cryogenic temperatures. In particular, it is being considered for die/substrate attaches in low temperature SiGe BiCMOS modules for Martian and Lunar exploration. An efficient and systematic assessment was conducted to evaluate the reliability of indium solder under thermal fatigue and extended cold temperature mechanical fatigue conditions encountered in space exploration missions. In addition, fatigue failure sites, modes and mechanisms in indium solder at low temperature were investigated. A fatigue model was also calibrated for indium solder joint at cryogenic temperatures.     

Flash analog-to-digital converter operational in an ultra wide temperature range (room temperature to 4.2 K) in standard CMOS technology using a cryogenic reset switching scheme

This work presents the design and test result of a standard 0.7 μm CMOS flash analog-to-digital converter (ADC) operational in an ultra wide temperature range (UWT, room temperature down to 4.2 K). To maintain the circuit’s performance over the UWT range in the presence of temperature induced transistor anomalies, dedicated topology and switching schemes are utilized. Test results mentioned in this text are from a single process run, no design iterations were made.     

Could binary mixture of Nd-Ni ions control the electrical behavior of strontium-barium M-type hexaferrite nanoparticles?

Cationic substitution in M-type hexaferrites is considered to be an important tool for modification of their electrical properties. This work is part of our comprehensive study on the synthesis and characterization of Nd-Ni doped strontium-barium hexaferrite nanomaterials of nominal composition Sr_0.5Ba_0.5−xNd_xFe_12−yNi_yO₁₉ (x = 0.00-0.10; y = 0.00-1.00). Doping with this binary mixture modulates the physical and electrical properties of strontium-barium hexaferrite nanoparticles. Structural and electrical properties of the co-precipitated ferrites are investigated using state-of-the-art techniques. The results of X-ray diffraction analysis reveal that the lattice parameters and cell volume are inversely related to the dopant content. Temperature dependent DC-electrical resistivity measurements infer that resistivity of strontium-barium hexaferrites decreases from 1.8 × 10¹⁰ to 2.0 × 10⁸ Ω cm whereas the drift mobility, dielectric constant and dielectric loss tangent are directly related to the Nd-Ni content. The results of the study demonstrate a relationship between the modulation of electrical properties of substituted ferrites and nature of cations and their lattice site occupancy.     

Synthesis,electrical and dielectric characterization of cerium doped nano copper ferrites

The nanosized CuFe_2−xCe_xO₄ (x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8) ferrites doped with cerium are synthesized by chemical co-precipitation method. The synthesized materials are characterized by XRD, FTIR, TGA and SEM. XRD analysis of cerium substituted copper ferrites confirms the cubic spinel structure. The average crystallite size calculated by using Scherrer's formula ranges from 37 to 53 nm. The values of cell constant and cell volume vary with the dopant concentration. These variations can be explained in terms of their ionic radii. The DC electrical resistivity, measured by two point probe method, increases with increase in dopant concentration while it decreases with rise in temperature exhibiting semiconductor behaviour. Energy of activation of these ferrites is calculated by using Arrhenius type resistivity plots. Dielectric measurements of the synthesized compounds show exponential decrease in dielectric constant and dielectric loss factor with increase in frequency. This indicates the normal dielectric behaviour of ferrites.     

Fiber-optic Bragg gratings as magnetic field-insensitive strain sensors for the surveillance of cryogenic devices

While conventional electrical resistance strain gages show increasing cross-sensitivities to temperature and magnetic field with decreasing temperature down to liquid helium, it has been found that fiber-optic Bragg grating strain sensors show negligible thermo-optic and magneto-optic effects in cryogenic environments; therefore, they allow reliable strain measurements. These specific application advantages of optical fiber Bragg grating sensors at low temperatures, together with the electrical isolation and low electro-magnetic interference, low thermal conductivity and their multiplexing capability, make them attractive for structural health monitoring in cryogenic devices such as superconductive magnets. In this paper we present low temperature characteristics of fiber Bragg grating-based sensors and address application-based side effects such as induced birefringence.     

GaAs cryogenic readout electronics for high impedance detector arrays for far-infrared and submillimeter wavelength region

We have been developing cryogenic readout integrate circuits (ROICs) for high impedance submillimeter and far-infrared detectors: Our ROICs are constructed from SONY GaAs-JFETs, which have excellent performance even at less than 1 K. We designed ROICs consisting of analog readouts and digital circuits for 32-element SIS photon detectors fabricated in RIKEN. The analog readout is ac-coupled capacitive transimpedance amplifier (CTIA), which is composed of the two-stage amplifier. Some initial test results of the ac-coupled CTIA gave us the following performance; open loop gain of >740, power consumption ≈1.4 μW. The input referred noise is ≈4 μV/ at 1 Hz. These results suggest that low power and high sensitive cryogenic readout electronics are successfully developed for high impedance detectors.     

Modification of the physical properties of semiconducting MgAl2O4 by doping with a binary mixture of Co and Zn ions

The effects of doping of MgAl₂O₄ by a binary mixture of Co and Zn ions on the absorbance, electrical resistivity, capacitance, thermal conductivity, heat capacity and thermal diffusivity are reported in this paper. The materials with the nominal composition Mg_1−2x(Co,Zn)_xAl₂O₄ (x = 0.0-0.5) are synthesized by solution combustion synthesis assisted by microwave irradiation. The substituted spinels are produced with a Scherrer crystallite size of 18-23 nm, as opposed to 45 nm for undoped samples, indicated by X-ray diffraction and confirmed by transmission electron microscopy. These materials also show better thermal stability in the temperature range of 298-1773 K. Three strong absorption bands at 536, 577 and 630 nm are observed for the doped samples which are attributed to the three spin allowed (⁴A₂ (F) → ⁴T₁ (P)) electronic transitions of Co²⁺ at tetrahedral lattice sites while pure magnesium aluminate remains transparent in the whole spectral range. The semiconducting behavior of the materials is evident from the temperature dependence of the electrical resistivity. Resistivity and activation energy are higher for the substituted samples. Fitting of the resistivity data is achieved according to the hopping polaron model of solids. Both dielectric constant and loss increase on account of doping. The dielectric data are explained on the basis of space charge polarization. The thermal conductivity and diffusivity are lowered and the heat capacity is increased in the doped materials. Wiedemann-Franz's law is used to compute the electronic and lattice contributions towards the total thermal conductivity.     

A facile method for rapid preparation of individual titania nanotube powders by a two-step process

Present study reports a facile method for preparing individual TiO₂ nanotube (NT) powders by a two-step process, which includes that TiO₂ NT bundles are rapidly synthesized by an electro-chemical process in perchlorate-containing electrolyte and then they are disaggregated into individual TiO₂ NT powders under an assistance of ultrasonic oscillation treatment. Morphological and microstructural properties of the individual TiO₂ NT powders are characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Results indicate that the individual TiO₂ NT powders, which have an outer diameter of about 20 nm and an inner diameter of 10 nm, can be easily obtained from the disaggregation of the TiO₂ NT-bundles by combining the electrochemical process with the physical processing. Furthermore, the individual TiO₂ NT powders exhibit higher photocatalytic activity than the TiO₂ NT-bundle powders.     

Bulk modulus and hardness of chalcopyrite structured solids

The bulk modulus and microhardness can be represented by an empirical linear relation that is a simple function of melting temperature T_m, atomic volume Ω and product of ionic charges (Z₁Z₂Z₃). Values of bulk modulus B and microhardness H of A^IB^IIIC₂^VI and A^IIB^IVC₂^V chalcopyrite semiconductors exhibit a linear relationship when plotted against the k_BT_m/Ω (k_B = Boltzmann's constant), but fall on two straight lines according to the product of ionic charges of the compounds. This correlation is similar in form to other correlations in the literature for diffusion data of materials that indicate the significance of the melting temperature as a scaling or lattice dynamic properties of materials. The calculated results are compared with available experimental data and previous calculations based on phenomenological models.     

Microwave dielectric properties of flexible silicone rubber – Ba(Zn1/3Ta2/3)O3 composite substrates

Silicone rubber composites filled with Ba(Zn_1/3Ta_2/3)O₃ (BZT) were prepared by hot pressing and the effect of filler content on the microwave dielectric, mechanical and thermal properties as well as on moisture absorption were investigated. The observed relative permittivity (ɛ_r) was compared with different theoretical models. Among the different theoretical models Jayasundere Smith and Modified Lichtenecker were in good agreement with experimental values of ɛ_r. The study of the mechanical property showed that the silicone rubber – BZT composites were flexible and stretchable. The coefficient of thermal expansion and specific heat capacity decreased whereas thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and the moisture absorption increased with increase in filler loading.     

Properties of lead zirconate-alumina ‘nanocomposites’

Microstructures, Vickers hardness and dielectric properties of PbZrO₃ ceramics with co-additions of 0.5-5 vol% Al₂O₃ nanoparticles have been investigated. The additive inhibited grain growth, with average grain size decreasing from ∼13 μm for PbZrO₃ to ∼1 μm for the nanocomposites. The mode of fracture also changed, from predominantly inter-granular in PbZrO₃ to a mixed-mode of intra- and inter-granular fracture in the composite samples. Vickers hardness values increased from 2.9 GPa for PbZrO₃ to 4.1 GPa for the sample with 1 vol% Al₂O₃, but there was a more gradual increase for higher Al₂O₃ contents. Plots of relative permittivity versus temperature indicated subtle differences which were attributed to a chemical reaction between the additive and matrix during sintering. X-ray powder diffraction showed that lead aluminium oxides were the principal products of this reaction.     

New methodology and apparatus for accelerated long-life testing of linear-drive cryocoolers

In this paper we are presenting a new approach which was developed for the accelerated tests of cryocoolers with a lifetime of 5–20 yr. In accordance with this approach the cryocooler is separated into critical units, each of which is tested under its own unique program. After completion of tests and assembly the cryocooler parameters are compared to the parameters of the system prior to the beginning of accelerated test.     

Cryogenic heat pipe for cooling high temperature superconductors

The research in this paper investigates a consumable-free method of operating a high temperature superconducting (HTS) coil in space. The HTS wire resides inside a cryogenic heat pipe which is used for isothermalization. This paper presents the design, implementation, and testing of a cryogenic heat pipe for cooling high temperature superconductors. As a proof-of-concept, an 86 cm long straight heat pipe was constructed and enclosed two straight lengths of HTS wire. The working fluid, at saturation condition, maintains a constant temperature below the HTS wire critical temperature. Testing of the heat pipe in a vacuum chamber was conducted to verify the drop in HTS resistance correlating to the wire operating in a superconducting state.     

Modification of dielectric and mechanical properties of rubber ferrite composites containing manganese zinc ferrite

Spinel ferrites constitute an important class of magnetic materials. Polycrystalline ferrites are a complex system composed of crystallite grain boundaries and pores. Manganese zinc ferrites have resistivities between 0.01 and 10 Ω m. Making composite materials of ferrites with either natural rubber or plastics will modify the electrical properties of ferrites. Composite materials are ideally suited for many modern applications where ceramic materials have some drawbacks. The mouldability and flexibility of these composites find wide use in industrial and other scientific applications. Mixed ferrites belonging to the series Mn_(1−x)Zn_xFe₂O₄ (MZF) were synthesized for different ‘x’ values in steps of 0.2. These pre-characterized ceramic ferrites were then incorporated in a natural rubber matrix. The dielectric properties of the ceramic manganese zinc ferrite and RFC were also studied. A program based on G programming was developed with the aid of LabVIEW package to automate the dielectric measurements. The dielectric permittivity of the RFC were then correlated with that of the corresponding dielectric permittivity of the magnetic filler and matrix by a mixture equation, which helps to tailor properties of the composites.     

A continuum damage model for glass/epoxy laminates in tension

The present work is concerned with the study of the damage behaviour of a composite material based on glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP). The main goal is to predict the rupture force using model equations that combine enough mathematical simplicity to allow their usage in engineering problems with the capability of describing a complex nonlinear mechanical behaviour. A model for tensile developed within the framework of Continuum Damage Mechanics that accounts for the effect of the load rate and temperature of the system is proposed and analyzed. The predicted values of tensile stress for different values of the load rate and temperature are compared with experimental data, showing a good agreement.     

Feed system thermal integration for a cryogenic Lunar ascent stage

Cryogenic liquid acquisition devices (LADs) for space-based propulsion interface directly with the feed system, a significant heat leak source. The gradual accumulation of thermal energy within a representative capillary LAD during long-term storage periods (up to 210 days) on the Lunar surface is the main issue addressed. The ongoing program consists of experimental and analytical facets that include: (a) thermal modeling of LAD interior temperatures, (b) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analyses to define bulk liquid conditions surrounding the LAD, (c) testing and analyses of condensation conditioning techniques for stabilizing LAD liquid retention, and (d) low-cost fluid systems thermal integration testing.     

20-50 K and 40-80 K pulse tube coolers: Two candidates for a low temperature cooling chain

Following its important cryogenics heritage for the European Space industry for both Ariane launcher and Orbital programs, Air Liquide - Advanced Technology Division (AL/DTA) is proposing different pulse tube cryocoolers all over the temperature range to answer the needs of earth observation and scientific missions.This paper presents recent performance improvement of the large heat lift 40-80 K pulse tube cooler (LPTC). Four units have been manufactured and tested. Three units are dedicated to lifetime testing in the framework of French Military Space Program (under CNES contract) and Meteosat Third Generation program (ESA contract). The batch performances are described and the product maturity is discussed in this paper.To lower the temperature range and to complete our cryogenic chain, we developed in partnership with CEA/INAC/SBT, a heat intercepted 20-50 K pulse tube cryocooler. This cooler has been developed in the framework of an ESA contract (ESA/ESTEC No 20497/0/NL/PA-20-50 K pulse tube cooler). A development phase has been performed to test and optimize different cold head architectures to reach the 300 mW@20 K specification. A no-load temperature of 12.5 K has been demonstrated on breadboard model. The outputs of the trade-off, the resulting design and the performances are described.In complement to the dilution cooler similar to the one developed for the PLANCK mission, those two pulse tube coolers are potential candidates for a very low temperature cooling chain. By optimizing the capabilities of the 20 K stage for low temperature operation (no-load in the range of 8 K) the coupling of the three independent stages becomes possible.     

Ge-on-GaAs film resistance thermometers: Low-temperature conduction and magnetoresistance

We investigated and generalized the resistance temperature and magnetic field dependences for various versions of cryogenic resistance thermometers based on Ge films on semi-insulating GaAs substrates. It is shown that, at low temperatures, the conductivity mechanism that is responsible for Ge film heat and magnetic field sensitivity is variable-range hopping (VRH). We found that the exponent x in VRH-type temperature law may take different values (fall between 0.25 and 0.67) for different versions of Ge-on-GaAs film thermometers. The magnetoresistance of Ge films depends strongly on the nature of hopping conductivity. It may be positive and negative as well as high and low. We found that, in the 1.8−4.2 K temperature range studied, the Ge films with x≅0.25 (that corresponds to nonzero constant density of states at the Fermi level) demonstrate high positive magnetoresistance. The films with x > 0.4 (that corresponds to presence of a gap in the density of states at the Fermi level) have negative magnetoresistance component that predominates at magnetic induction up to 3–5 Т. The parameters describing VRH conductivity in the Ge-on-GaAs films thermometers were determined. From practical point of view for thermometry, the possibility to describe the R = f(T) dependence by an analytical equation (VRH-type temperature law) does not require the fitting procedure and makes calibration and thermometry more simple and convenient.