A laser sensor with multiple detectors for freeform surface digitization

In this paper, an integrated laser scanning sensor for freeform surface digitization is presented. The sensor consists of a diode laser light source and four position-sensitive device (PSD) detectors. The stand-off distance of the sensor is 180 mm and the measurable range is 90 mm. The Lambert model is applied to calculate the displacement between the sensor and the measured point on the object surface along the optical axis, under the assumption of a diffusive surface. The inclination angle of the measured point from the vertical plane of the laser beam is calculated by mathematical inference. Those data are used in error compensation to improve the system precision. The new design of multiple detectors could increase the measurable angle and could solve the dead-space problem in the single-point laser of triangulation measurement. The computer simulation and actual measurements show that the displacement resolution is around 50 μm, and the system performs well in terms of stability and repeatability. The sensor system could be mounted on the NC machine or on the X–Y platform for freeform surface digitization.     

非接触式缸盖平面度误差检测方法与测量系统研究*

为解决发动机缸盖生产铸造过程中缸盖底面平整度误差检测问题,设计一种激光非接触式发动机缸盖底面平整度在线检测系统,提出一种基于对角中线的平面度误差检测算法。根据现场平面度检测需求,设计利用激光臂纵轴和缸盖横轴传送的交互运动的发动机缸盖表面平面度误差检测系统;通过发动机缸盖表面检测四个顶角特征点对角线中线建立发动机缸盖平面度检测的数学模型,利用回归方程确定最小二乘法平面为理想平面,求出平面度误差;并对激光位移传感器进行精度标定,给出传感器误差标定回归方程,并应用该检测系统完成对不同型号的发动机缸盖检测。结果表明：该系统最大检测面积为400 mm×2 000 mm,测量范围为160~450 mm,测量精度为0.03 mm,而且结构简单,检测速度快,完全能够达到在线检测要求。     

点激光测头激光束方向标定

为了使点激光测头能在任意方向上实现测量功能,提出一种逆向工程中标定激光束方向的方法,设计了一种标定面方向可调的标定块配合标定。标定过程中,让激光测头在标定面上分别沿X、Y、Z3个轴方向做等间距运动,根据进给步长与激光束长度变化量之间的关系确定激光束的方向。以三坐标测量机为平台,给出了以任意方向安置点激光测头时,测量值从传感器坐标系到基准坐标系的转换过程,并对标定算法及整个标定过程进行了详细描述。最后,通过与接触式测量进行对比实验,验证标定后点激光测头的测量效果。实验结果表明,用该方法标定的点激光测头在3σ范围内沿任意方向的测量误差为(0.0452±0.0168)mm,满足逆向工程的测量要求。     

Effect of slice thickness on the profile accuracy of model maker rapid prototyping measured by a circular triangulation laser probe

The objective of this research is to investigate the effect of slice thickness on the profile accuracy of the model maker (MM) rapid prototyping (RP) system, layer by layer, through non-contact laser probe measurement. A circular triangulation laser probe, model OTM-3A20, made by Wolf & Beck Co., was mounted on a coordinate measuring machine (CMM), as the non-contact sensor. An adjustment device for the laser probe was designed to minimise the cosine error caused by assembly inaccuracy. The alignment test of the measuring laser beam was carried out using a calibrated specimen. The systematic accuracy of the circular triangulation laser probe with respect to the surface roughness and the surface slope of the RP workpiece was investigated using a HP5529A laser interferometer system. The maximum error of 21/2D RP part profile accuracy can be improved from 220 μm to 131 μm, and the average error can be improved from 78 μm to 46 μm as the slice thickness changed from 0.127 mm (0.005 in.) to 0.0127 μm (0.0005 in). However, the machining time increases by about seven fold based on the experimental results. An overall error of 197 μm as measured by the laser probe is attainable using the finest slice thickness 0.0127 mm (0.0005 in.) for the 3D profile accuracy. To verify the accuracy of non-contact laser probe measurement, the 3D profile of the RP part was also measured by a CNC CMM, with good consistency.     

激光位移传感器在自由曲面测量中的应用

以点激光位移传感器(HL-C211BE)为对象,研究它在自由曲面测量中的应用。针对激光位移传感器因测点倾角代入的测量误差,提出了一个可以量化的倾角误差模型。基于直射式点激光三角法原理,分析了激光光路的几何关系,从会聚光斑光能质心发生的偏移推导出倾角误差模型。随后,用高精度激光干涉仪和正弦规对激光位移传感器进行校对实验,并用误差模型对测量结果进行补偿。结果显示,补偿后激光位移传感器的测量精度得到明显提高。对一非球面凸透镜进行了实验测量,得到了自由曲面测点倾角的计算方法,并用倾角误差模型修正了测量数据。实验结果表明,量化的倾角误差模型可以将激光位移传感器的测量误差控制到小于10μm,满足激光位移传感器在自由曲面测量中应用的要求。     

基于位置敏感探测器的六自由度精密位姿测量系统

位置敏感探测器(Position Sensitive Detector,PSD)是一种高精度的二维位移测量传感器,利用三片二维PSD的组合实现空间六自由度相对运动的位移和角度测量。测量系统主要包括三片PSD传感器(包括PSD光敏面和发光管)、低噪声的信号调理和AD采集电路,采用三片PSD正交布局方案,通过PSD光敏面的光点位置计算相对运动的位移和角度。设计了六自由度的PSD标定测试系统,用于PSD测量系统中心偏移和发光管安装误差的标定测试。测试结果表明,PSD测量系统的测量范围优于位移±10mm、角度±2.5°,标定后PSD测量系统的噪声误差为位移0.1mm、角度0.02°,测量系统的绝对位移误差小于0.5mm、角度误差小于0.14°,满足系统0.5mm和0.5°的指标要求。此外,对PSD传感器的环境适应性进行了评估。PSD测量系统具有量程宽、精度高、线性度好的优点,成功应用于天舟1号货运飞船微重力主动隔振装置的相对运动测量中。     

Process simulation and optimization of laser tube bending

A 3D thermomechanical finite element analysis model for laser tube bending is developed based on the software MSC/Marc. The processes of single- and multi-scan are analyzed numerically. The gradient and development of the temperature between the laser scanning side and the nonscanning side leads to the changing complexity of the stress and strain. Consequently, the length of the laser scanning side becomes shorter than that of nonscanning side after cooling. The length difference between both sides makes the tube produce the bending angle. The relationship between the number of scans and the bending angle is about in direct ratio. The bending angle induced by the first irradiated time is largest. Meanwhile, the finite element simulation is integrated with the genetic algorithm. Aiming at different process demands, corresponding objective functions are established. Laser power, beam diameter, scanning velocity, and scanning wrap angle are regarded as design variables. Process optimizations of maximum angle bending and fixed angle bending after single laser scan are realized. Groups of optimized process parameters can be obtained according to different optimization objectives. The bending angle can approach to the maximum when the laser power, spot diameter, scanning velocity, and scanning wrap angle are 381.24 W, 3.37 mm, 16.34 mm/s, and 123.1°, respectively. When the laser power, spot diameter and scanning velocity are 426.12 W, 4.9 mm, 14.31 mm/s respectively, a fixed angle bending can be achieved.     

时栅角位移传感器在线自标定系统

为解决时栅角位移传感器在实际应用中的在线标定问题,提出了一种定角平移自标定方法并设计了相应的自标定系统。该方法首先把圆周封闭的自然基准转换成定角基准,在时栅内部建立了自标定基准。然后,根据傅里叶级数的性质,将定角基准平移到傅里叶变换的幅值和相位中,建立了测量值之差与误差之差的函数关系。通过对测量值之差进行傅里叶分析,重构了时栅角位移传感器的误差函数。最后,讨论了影响自标定精度的误差来源,并设计了传感器的零点纠错算法。为了检验自标定效果,利用激光干涉仪实验装置与自标定系统进行了对比试验。结果表明:定角平移自标定精度为1.9″,与理论计算的自标定误差(1.5±0.5)″的结论相符。提出的自标定方法在解决时栅自身标定基准的同时,满足了精密测量领域对时栅精度和可靠性的要求。     

飞机强度试验舵面偏角测量方法的研究

为满足飞机结构强度试验中舵面偏角测量的要求,提出了一种基于位移测量的舵面偏角测量方法.该方法通过安装于舵面悬挂支臂上的两个拉线式位移传感器,测量相对于舵面悬挂接头上同一个测量点的位移,利用三角公式进行计算,得到舵面的偏转角度.对比验证试验表明,该方法的测量性能指标满足飞机结构强度试验要求,解决了传统利用倾角传感器无法测...     

基于Freeform的逆向工程数据修复

介绍了基于力反馈技术的Freeform触觉式设计系统在逆向工程测量数据修复方面强大的功能。利用非接触式光栅扫描仪测量飞机模型的表面数据点云,通过Freeform的分割黏土、膨胀、镜像、平滑等功能,成功地恢复了飞机模型完整的表面数据。     

基于狭缝光阑的剪切散斑干涉动态测量

为了精确、实时地测量物体表面的动态形变,提出了基于狭缝光阑的空间载波剪切散斑干涉系统。该系统通过倾斜迈克尔逊干涉仪的一个平面镜来产生剪切量和载波频率,实现空间频谱的移动;采用一个可调节的狭缝光阑控制散斑大小和空间频谱宽度。基于傅里叶变换与反变换在空间频率域上提取所需的频谱并计算相位图,最后通过一幅干涉条纹图得到相位分布信息。采用该系统对一个中心加载、四周固支的薄铝板进行了动态测量,分析了光学系统参数对测量结果的影响。结果表明,采用像素尺寸为4.65μm×4.65μm的高分辨率相机,焦距为8mm的成像镜头,设置剪切量为25mm,狭缝光阑X方向的尺寸为1mm时,可得到高质量的剪切散斑相位图。该方法可以在25frame/s的采集速度下,以43.6°的视场角实现动态形变的测量,可测形变峰值为0.5~30μm。     

新型自由曲面三维激光扫描系统

从机械结构、控制系统及操作系统结构等几个角度介绍一种三维激光扫描系统设计方案。系统集成了先进的数据处理技术、激光扫描技术、先进控制技术及机器人技术,有效地借助于光机电一体化技术实现了表面检测及三维表面模型重构智能化及自动化。系统由具有电驱动装置的激光测头、C形滑臂、升降旋转台、电控系统及主控计算机组成。通过所设置测量参数,系统能够对不同的被测物体进行扫描路径规划,进而通过激光测头、C形滑臂及转台的全自动协调控制完成无盲点三维表面测量任务。试验结果表明,该三维激光扫描系统的扫描精度达到0.1 mm,速度为10 000点/s,能够应用于小型工件及模型、模具表面数据检测及模型重构。     

Position-oriented process monitoring in freeform abrasive machining

Process monitoring is necessary for the identification and avoidance of process disturbances that could cause poor surface integrity at selected machining parameters. In this paper, a position-oriented process monitoring strategy is introduced which enables determination of process characteristics for freeform abrasive machining. Through correlation of internal machine data of position and power during machining with laser displacement measurement, position-orientated maps of power and specific energy can be generated to enable an evaluation of the machining efficiency of the abrasive machining process. Measurement chains are described, and experimental results reveal that the measurement system provides a significant insight into the process by identifying regions of high power, depth of cut, engagement and specific energy on freeform parts.     

Influence of laser heat treatment on microstructure and properties of surface layer of Waspaloy aimed for laser-assisted machining

In this study, a nickel-based superalloy, Waspaloy, was laser heat treated with diode laser. Single laser tracks were manufactured with different laser beam power densities between 63 and 331 kW/cm², and scanning laser beam speed ranged from 5 to 100 m/min. It was found that laser heat treatment of Waspaloy causes decrease in material hardness—the microhardness in laser tracks is about 300 HV0,1 while the microhardness of substrate is ranged from 300 to 600 HV0,1—which is a positive phenomenon for laser-assisted machining of investigated material. Impacts of laser heat treatment parameters on laser tracks properties were identified for obtaining multiple laser tracks with the most homogenous thickness. Moreover, roughness of heated layers was measured to specify surface quality after laser heat treatment. Multiple laser tracks were produced using different scanning laser beam speed and distances between laser tracks ranged from 0.125 to 1 mm. It was found that if scanning laser beam speed is 75 m/min and distance between laser tracks is equal to or lower than 0.25 mm, in microstructures of multiple laser tracks, cracks are occurring. The most suitable laser heat parameters for obtaining heated layers, and which can be used for laser-assisted machining, were identified as laser beam power density 178.3 kW/cm², scanning laser beam speed 5 m/min, and distance between laser tracks 0.125 mm.     

点云频域配准的双目双线结构光列车轮对检测

针对单线结构光测量因范围有限以及遮挡等原因而无法检测整个车轮的轮缘及踏面的问题,提出了一种列车轮对双目双线结构光检测方法。该方法采用两组双线结构光传感器进行测量和数据采集。在两传感器产生的点云进行配准的过程中使用截面点云数据还原点云矩阵,然后对其进行傅里叶变换,在计算旋转角度时先进行极坐标转换,最后求取两矩阵的互功率谱,从而得到点云的旋转和平移矩阵。在此过程中考虑到点云噪声的存在,将辛格函数近似代替无噪声的互功率谱傅里叶反变换,从而确定在频域配准时噪声对配准参数的确定并无影响。接着采用相对值比较的算法和主成分分析拟合基准平面,对轮对直径方向进行标定。利用标定值对扫描数据进行处理,得出包括车轮直径、车轮滚动圆径向跳动等对尺寸参数。实验表明:点云频域配准的双目双线轮对检测技术对车轮直径的测量尺寸误差≤±0.05mm,车轮端跳的测量误差≤±0.06mm,车轮径跳的测量误差≤0.04mm。与标准轮对检测数据相比可知,该系统满足轮对检测精度的要求。     

Modeling and optimization of burr height in drilling of Al-7075 using Taguchi method and response surface methodology

This investigation presents the use of Taguchi and response surface methodologies for minimizing the burr height and the surface roughness in drilling Al-7075. The Taguchi method, a powerful tool to design optimization for quality, is used to find optimal cutting parameters. Response surface methodology is useful for modeling and analyzing engineering problems. The purpose of this paper was to investigate the influence of cutting parameters, such as cutting speed and feed rate, and point angle on burr height and surface roughness produced when drilling Al-7075. A plan of experiments, based on L₂₇ Taguchi design method, was performed drilling with cutting parameters in Al-7075. All tests were run without coolant at cutting speeds of 4, 12, and 20 m/min and feed rates of 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mm/rev and point angle of 90^°, 118°, and 135°. The orthogonal array, signal-to-noise ratio, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were employed to investigate the optimal drilling parameters of Al-7075. From the analysis of means and ANOVA, the optimal combination levels and the significant drilling parameters on burr height and surface roughness were obtained. The optimization results showed that the combination of low cutting speed, low feed rate, and high point angle is necessary to minimize burr height. The best results of the surface roughness were obtained at lower cutting speed and feed rates while at higher point angle. The predicted values and measured values are quite close to each other; therefore, this result indicates that the developed models can be effectively used to predict the burr height and the surface roughness on drilling of Al-7075.     

Direct metal laser fabrication: machine development and experimental work

A novel modification of the freeform technique selective laser sintering machine via system integration to develop a direct metal laser fabrication machine suitable for both nonmetal and metal materials is put forward in this paper, the aim of which is to establish an experiment platform for studying the direct metal laser fabrication (DMLF) as a variant of selective laser sintering (SLS). The system integration of two machines is realized by use of the low-power SLS Machine (CO₂, 50 W) and high-power laser processing machine (CO₂, 2,000 W) in our institute after the improvement or rebuilding of light route system, functional units, machinery and electrical system, and control software in the primary SLS machine, which means that direct metal laser fabrication machine with the laser power up to 1,000 W has been developed successfully. Functional tests of two machines and DMLF experiments of a large number of metal powders including Cu-based mixture and 316L-based mixture of powder have been done in detail. The results show that the material suitable for direct metal laser fabrication machine ranges from nonmetal powders to metal powders, including polystyrene, polyamide, polycarbonate, sands, and a large number of metal powders. At the same time, the primary functions or performances of both low-power SLS Machine and high-power laser processing machine are preserved entirely. Metal samples based on copper and 316L powders can be fabricated with the relative density of about 80% and 100%, respectively, by use of developed DMLF machine. The macro appearance and microstructure and processing mechanisms of DMLF are analyzed minutely. The academic application of DMLF machine for metal powders with high melting point has been making its mark.     

Constrained deformation of freeform surfaces using surface features for interactive design

There is an increasing demand in conceptual design for more intuitive methods for creating and modifying freeform curves and surfaces in CAD modeling systems. The methods should be based not only on the change of the mathematical parameters but also on the user's specified constraints and shapes. This paper presents a new surface representation model for freeform surface deformation representation. The model is a combination of two functions: a displacement function and a function for representing an existing NURBS surface called a parent surface. Based on the surface model, the authors develop several novel deformation methods which are named SingleDef (Single-point constraint based deformation method), MultiDef (Multiple-points constraints based deformation method), CurDef (Curve constraints based deformation method) and FeatDef (Feature constraint based deformation method). The techniques for freeform surface deformation allow conceptual designers to modify a parent surface by directly applying point constraints, curve constraint or a surface constraint to the parent surface. The deformation methods are implemented in an experimental CAD system. The results show that designers can easily and intuitively control the surface shape.     

Experimental analysis of sheet metal micro-bending using a nanosecond-pulsed laser

Laser shock bending is a sheet metal micro-forming process using shock waves induced by a nanosecond-pulsed laser. It is developed to accurately bend, shape, precision align, or repair micro-components with bending angles less than 10°. Negative bending angle (away from laser beam) can be achieved with the high-energy pulsed laser, despite the conventional positive laser bending mechanism. In this research, various experimental and numerical studies on aluminum sheets are conducted to investigate the different deformation mechanism, positive or negative. The experiments are conducted with the sheet thickness varying from 0.25 to 1.75 mm and laser pulse energy of 0.2 to 0.5 J. A critical thickness threshold of 0.7-0.88 mm is found that the transition of positive–negative bending mechanism occurs. A statistic regression analysis is developed to determine the bending angle as a function of laser process parameters for positive bending cases.     

Multi-beam laser probe for measuring position and orientation of freeform surface

This study develops a novel optical non-contact probe that measures the position and orientation (normal vector) of a freeform surface. The probe system comprises a five-laser-beam projector and a charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. The probe is integrated on a three-axis platform. Five designed laser beams project onto a measuring surface, where five light spots are observed. The CCD captures the image of this surface and processes it. The 3D coordinates of the five light spots can be then computed. The normal direction at the central spot on the measuring surface is determined from two crossed curves through the coordinates of these five light spots. Two crossed curves are constructed using the Bezier method. The normal vector is the cross-product of two tangent vectors to the two crossed curves at central spot. A scheme for calibrating and making measurements using this five-laser-beam probe is proposed and verified experimentally. Experimental results demonstrate that this five-laser-beam probe system can measure the position and orientation of a freeform surface. The range of depths that can be measured using this probe is 2.4 mm and the range of angles is 40°. The positional measuring accuracy of the complete system is approximately 30 μm while the orientational accuracy is 1.8°.