Learning to write in an online writing center: The effect of learning styles on the writing process

One of the main advantages of online learning materials is that they can be adapted for students with different learning styles. This article presents a study and a methodology to investigate whether students with different learning styles make use of the potential flexibility of online learning materials, i.c. in the context of an online writing center. The study aims to investigate the effect of learning styles on (a) the students' approach to the writing task (process), and (b) on the letters they write (product). Twenty students each completed a module on writing ‘bad news’ letters designed for Business Communication courses. Their reading and writing processes were recorded. The letters were also graded to determine their quality. An effect of learning style was found: Active and Reflective writers approached the task differently, but only in the beginning of the process. In this early stage Reflective learners were more likely to focus on the theory section than Active learners. This suggests that writers with different learning styles tackle the learning materials in different ways, often in line with the preferences that characterize their learning styles. However, no effect of learning style on text quality was found.     

Situation Definition and the Online Synchronous Writing Conference

Since the mid 1990's, more and more college and university writing centers have been offering online synchronous writing conferences to students. Writing center researchers have published extensively on how tutors can promote collaboration in online conferences, but comparatively few have used Lev Vygotsky's conception of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) to analyze activity in these conferences or to develop specific methods for working with students in these environments. Using more recent developments in the theory of the ZPD, such as the concept of situation definition, I will discuss how tutors can apply strategies related to the ZPD to promote student learning. By focusing on students’ definitions of rhetorical concepts that often implicitly guide students’ writing processes, tutors can help students improve how they approach their writing tasks. Progress through the ZPD, then, is more related to how students grow their own understanding, rather than on the correcting of students’ texts. I will illustrate this theoretical discussion by presenting examples of two online synchronous writing conferences, and I will describe the implications and possible shortcomings of a method of tutoring that applies the concept of situation definition and the ZPD.     

Toward a Complexity of Online Learning: Learners in Online First-Year Writing

In response to the growing presence of online first-year writing courses, this paper describes a case study of two online first-year writing courses and addresses the questions: What do students in an online first-year writing course perceive as good study habits, and what helps them succeed? Data includes surveys, online discussions, course management statistics, and selected interviews. The study is supported by social cognitive theory described by psychologist Albert Bandura; this methodology allows for examination of internal, external, and behavioral characteristics of participating students. Results of the study indicate that students who rated themselves as making good use of study time also succeeded in the course. Insights from students include information about study activities, management of study time, access to technology, and attitudes about online courses. A surprising result of the study was that students did not consider communication with peers as a productive study activity, despite a deliberate attempt by instructors to build peer interaction into the course. Yet students also reported high levels of engagement and positive attitudes about online learning. The social cognitive lens provides helpful insights about these complex findings by examining the external, internal, and behavioral aspects of online first-year writing students in this study.     

What we have here is a failure to communicate: the criticality of writing in online instruction

This article addresses how online instructors can improve their email communications with students. The characteristics and demands of online instruction are described and characterized as depending on the instructor’s ability to communicate in writing. A model to guide instructors in their online communications, the Golden Triangles of Online Communication, is presented. The first triangle underscores the criticality of considering (a) the online learning environment context, (b) the learner, and (c) the learning task. The second triangle presents three critical questions that instructors using online communications must quickly answer (a) What is this about? (b) Why should I care? and (c) What am I supposed to do? The Golden Triangles represent an effort to provide assistance to instructors in the difficult task of providing high quality instruction with high student satisfaction in online learning. In the final analysis, we underscore the importance of instructors’ writing skills in effective and appealing online in teaching.     

Weathering wikis: Net-based learning meets political science in a South African university

Wikis represent flexible tools functioning as open-ended environments for collaboration while also offering process and group writing support. Here we focus on a project to innovate the use of wikis for collaborative writing within student groups in a final-year undergraduate political science course. The primary questions guiding our research were in what ways could wikis assist collaborative learning in an undergraduate course in political science and how we could support educators’ in the effective use of wikis? Curiously, wikis may serve as a mediating artifact for collaborative writing even among students who are reluctant to post online drafts. The paper raises questions concerning the nature and limits of lecturer and tutor power to deliver transformative educational innovations in relation to the capacity of students to embrace, comply with, or resist such innovation. In analysing the negotiation of the use of wikis in the course by and among the lecturer, tutors, and students, we draw on two principles in activity theory, which Yrjö Engeström argued are central to his model of expansive learning: multi-voicedness and contradictions [Engeström, Yrjö. (1987). Learning by expanding: An activity-theoretical approach to developmental research. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit; Engeström, Yrjö. (2001). Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization. Journal of Education and Work14(1), 133-156.]. We add a third principle, transparency, to more fully capture what we observed.     

Learning presence as a moderator in the community of inquiry model

This study of over 2000 US college students examines the Community of Inquiry framework (CoI) in its capacity to describe and explain differences in learning outcomes in hybrid and fully online learning environments. We hypothesize that the CoI model's theoretical constructs of presence reflect educational effectiveness in a variety of environments, and that online learner self-regulation, a construct that we label “learning presence” moderates relationships of the other components within the CoI model. Consistent with previous research (e.g., Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, & Jones, 2009; Shea & Bidjerano, 2011) we found evidence that students in online and blended courses rank the modalities differently with regard to quality of teaching, social, and cognitive presence. Differences in help seeking behavior, an important component of self-regulated learning, were found as well. In addition, results suggest teaching presence and social presence have a differential effect on cognitive presence, depending upon learner's online self-regulatory cognitions and behaviors, i.e. their learning presence. These results also suggest a compensation effect in which greater self-regulation is required to attain cognitive presence in the absence of sufficient teaching and social presence. Recommendations for future research and practice are included.     

The effect of reflective learning e-journals on reading comprehension and communication in language learning

This study focused on the use of reflective learning e-journals in a university web-based English as a foreign language (EFL) course. In the study, a multimedia-based English programme comprising fifteen different units was delivered online as a one-semester instructional course. Ninety-eight undergraduate students participated, and they were divided into two groups: the treatment group used reflective learning e-journals, while the control group completed content-related exercises. The study investigated the effects of reflective learning e-journals and how students used them to aid learning. Results show that when learning from web-based instruction, students who used reflective learning e-journals outperformed students who did not do so in terms of reading comprehension. Using reflective e-journals improved the academic performance of learners in the online course. In addition, journal writing students claimed that they also improved their organisational skills and writing abilities through their reflective learning e-journal writing and found the journal writing to be a very helpful tool in reviewing the course and preparing for the exam.     

Examining effectiveness of communities of practice in online English for academic purposes (EAP) assessment in virtual classes

The literature on English for academic purposes (EAP) methodology highlights the significance of learners' engagement in learning language (Hyland, 2006) in mainstream general and online contexts. Blogs have been recommended in many studies as having the potential to bring the sense of community and collaboration in online classes. Therefore, this study sought to investigate whether blogs in large classes would help students enhance their perceptions of learning. To this end, Forty-two undergraduate students of Information Technology (IT) at an Iranian university participated in a weblog writing course in order to promote collaboration and reflective learning. Instrumentation included a questionnaire of perceived learning and sense of community, semi-structured interviews, and participant observations. The findings revealed a significant difference in perceived learning between the students with low sense of community and those with a high sense of community. Based on the qualitative findings of the study, we suggest an assessment framework incorporating constructivist and social-interactionist theories of learning in order to treat students as members of a community of learning. The findings may promise implications for gearing EAP assessment to more collaborative modes in online courses and suggest a model framework for the assessment of students in EAP online classes.     

The effects of a wiki-based collaborative process writing pedagogy on writing ability and attitudes among upper primary school students in Mainland China

This study mainly explored the effects of a Wiki-based Collaborative Process Writing Pedagogy (WCPWP) on writing ability and writing attitudes among Primary Four students in Shenzhen, China. Besides, this study also investigated students' collaborative writing process with the WCPWP. Students wrote their compositions in a MediaWiki platform (www.joyouswriting.com) named Joyous Writing Club (JWC) developed by the first author. By using a quasi-experimental design, two groups (classes) of Primary Four students participated in this study. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected including writing ability composition tests (pre-test and post-test), writing attitude tests (pre-test and post-test), online wiki documents, and observations. The results provided a general picture of the students' collaborative writing process and showed that the WCPWP had a positive but not significant effect on students' writing ability. Importantly, the results indicated that the WCPWP had a significant positive effect on the writing attitudes of students. The study further discussed the reasons related to the positive effects of the WCPWP on writing ability (not significant) and writing interests (significant). Implications and recommendations for primary school educators and Chinese language teachers are discussed.     

Predicting online learning success: Applying the situational theory of publics to the virtual classroom

Following the trend of increased interest by students to take online courses and by institutions to offer them, scholars have taken many different approaches to understand what makes one student successful in online learning while another may fail. This study proposes that using the situational theory of publics will provide a better understanding of online learning success. The situational theory of publics states that an individual's ability to recognize the value of a situation and the desire and ability to remove obstacles in that situation will lead to greater involvement in that situation. Results from a survey of students (n = 182) who completed an online “Introduction to Public Relations” course shows that awareness of course concepts and recognition that the field was important for their post-college careers and that the students' abilities to overcome course and technical constraints significantly impacted students' information processing abilities, which lead to greater involvement in the class and greater exam scores. The implications of the findings are discussed to better inform online instructors about methods to increase awareness and involvement in the course and reduce constraints to participation.     

Assessment of programming language learning based on peer code review model: Implementation and experience report

The traditional assessment approach, in which one single written examination counts toward a student’s total score, no longer meets new demands of programming language education. Based on a peer code review process model, we developed an online assessment system called EduPCR and used a novel approach to assess the learning of computer programming languages. Using this approach, students peer review programs written by other students, share ideas and make suggestions to achieve an objective of collaborative and interactive learning. Teachers assess and give scores to students based on their performance in writing, reviewing and revising programs and their abidance to a peer code review process. After using this approach in two courses in two consecutive semesters, we observed significant improvements of student learning in various aspects. We also conducted two questionnaire surveys and two interviews. The survey data and the interview report indicated that this assessment approach demonstrates high practical values in assessing student learning outcomes in programming languages. Additionally, this approach leads to several interesting research topics for future research in this field.     

Comparing grades in online and face-to-face writing courses: Interpersonal accountability and institutional commitment

In spite of benefits surrounding distance education programs, many online writing courses suffer from low student completion rates. Student retention has been identified as a concern in a number of studies of online education. We extend this discussion by examining the relationship of assessment of student work to retention, and comparing the grades students receive in online and face-to-face undergraduate writing courses. Our data point to what we call the “thrive or dive” phenomenon for student performance in online writing courses, which describes the disproportionately high percentage of students who fail or do not complete online courses compared to conventional, face-to-face courses. We extend this discussion on challenges related to student retention and propose instructional approaches for online learning that include the interpersonal accountability between teachers and students, as well as the institutional commitment necessary to ensure that students can succeed in online writing courses and programs.     

Language learners' digital literacies: Focus on students' information literacy and reading practices online

The widespread use of technology and the Internet have changed many of language learners' everyday practices, including literacies. While there have been many studies with the focus on language learners' digital literacies, few, however, have explored language learners' digital information literacy and online reading practices with the use of social bookmarking tools, especially in a community college setting. We address this gap by investigating community-college language learners' digital literacies when social bookmarking with the focus on digital information and online reading practices from an ecological perspective. In this qualitative multiple-case study, the focal participants were five English learners, students in an English as a Second Language writing course in a community college in the northeastern United States. Data collection included interviews, observations, and researchers' e-journals. Thorough within- and cross-case analysis of data shows that language learners searched for digital texts and evaluated them based on relevance, reliability, interest, language, and importance for them and their learning community in the social bookmarking tool. The participants struggled with the number of results in search engines, keywords, and evaluation of digital texts for relevance and reliability. We show the need for more instruction, support, and guidance of language learners' digital information literacy practices as well as the benefits of providing students with opportunities to read digital texts. Our suggestions for future research include investigating the role of multimodality and other factors that influence language learners' evaluation practices when they look for and read information online.     

Influence of group configuration on online discourse writing

This study examines the impact of different strategies for grouping students in online, discourse-intensive distance education courses. The mixed methods research focused on note writing productivity (based on 366 participants in 25 classes) and participants' perceptions (12 graduate students and 10 instructors) relating to three different class configurations (large whole class, small whole class, large class divided into subgroups). Each configuration exhibited advantages and disadvantages in terms of supporting note writing, however, the data analyses suggested that the advantages for writing in subgroups outweighed those of the other two conditions. Splitting larger classes into smaller subgroups appears to reduce information overload and encourages more focused, in-depth discussions. The research concludes with a list of pedagogical recommendations and suggests new software features that may help learning within specific group configurations. This study may have implications for both practitioners and researchers who wish to promote more fruitful online discussions.     

Students' perceptions of instructors' roles in blended and online learning environments: A comparative study

This study develops an instrument—the Online Instructor Role and Behavior Scale (OIRBS)—and uses it to examine students' perceptions of instructors' roles in blended and online learning environments. A total sample of 750 university students participated in this study. Through a confirmatory factor analysis, the OIRBS was validated in five constructs: course designer and organizer (CDO), discussion facilitator (DF), social supporter (SS), technology facilitator (TF), and assessment designer (AD). The results show that the five factor structures remained invariant across the blended learning and online learning. Both students in blended learning environments and students in online learning environments exhibited the greatest weight in the CDO dimension, followed by the TF and DF dimensions. In addition, students in the online learning environments scored higher in the DF dimension than did those in the blended learning environments.     

Improving summary writing through formative feedback in a technology-enhanced learning environment

Summary writing is a useful instructional tool for learning. However, summary writing is a challenge to many students. This mixed-method study examined the potential of the Student Mental Model Analyzer for Research and Teaching (SMART) system to help students produce summaries that reflect key concepts and relations in a text. SMART uses the students' summary to generate a multi-dimensional 3S (surface, structure, semantic) evaluation of the students' mental model. This model is then used to drive feedback to help students revise their summary. The current study is an initial investigation examining whether writing and revising in SMART improves students' summary quality. Students (n = 38) in a graduate-level online course used SMART for seven reading assignments. The 38 students submitted a total of 357 summaries in response to the seven readings. In 47 cases, students produced both an initial draft and a modified revision. These 47 cases were selected for analysis. In the quantitative phase, MANOVA results indicated that students' summaries improved along the 3S dimensions from initial draft to revision. In the qualitative phase, inspection of exemplar cases revealed how students' mental models changed towards more robust and cohesive knowledge structure for texts.     

Students' engagement characteristics predict success and completion of online courses

This study examined students' engagement characteristics in online courses and their impact on academic achievements, trying to distinguish between course completers and noncompleters. Moreover, this research is intended to differentiate between those who pass the final exam and those who do not. Four online courses were examined with a similar pedagogical model (N_students = 646) using learning analytics methods. The results revealed significant differences between students who completed the courses and students who did not, in all 13 variables. Completers' learning activities were more than twice as high, except for writing in the forums. Course subject and ongoing task and assignment submissions predicted course completion, whereas, in addition to these variables, engagement with course materials and reading the forums predicted final exam success, as well. Thus, the prediction of success in final exam emphasized the significant importance of engagement in various activities in the online course.