Robustness of base‐isolated high‐rise buildings under code‐specified ground motions

The robustness of base‐isolated high‐rise buildings is investigated under code‐specified ground motions. Friction‐type bearings are often used in base‐isolated high‐rise buildings to make the natural period of those buildings much longer. While additional damping can be incorporated into every story in passive controlled structures with inter‐story type passive members, that can be incorporated into the base‐isolation story only in the base‐isolated building. This fact leads to the property that, as the number of stories of the building becomes larger, the damping ratio reduces. This characteristic may cause some issues in the evaluation of robustness of base‐isolated high‐rise buildings. The purpose of this paper is to reveal the robustness of base‐isolated high‐rise buildings. A kind of inverse problem for the target drift in the base‐isolation story is formulated in order to determine the required quantity of additional viscous damping. It is demonstrated numerically that, as the base‐isolated building becomes taller, the damping ratio becomes smaller and the ratio of the friction‐type bearings in the total damping becomes larger. This may lead to the conclusion that base‐isolated high‐rise buildings have smaller robustness than base‐isolated low‐rise buildings. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Approximate method of estimating seismic performance of high‐rise buildings with oil‐dampers

When subjected to long‐period ground motions, many existing high‐rise buildings constructed on plains with soft, deep sediment layers experience severe lateral deflection, caused by the resonance between the long‐period natural frequency of the building and the long‐period ground motions, even if they are far from the epicenter. This was the case for a number of buildings in Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka affected by the ground motions produced by the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku earthquake in Japan. Oil‐dampers are commonly used to improve the seismic performance of existing high‐rise buildings subjected to long‐period ground motion. This paper proposes a simple but accurate analytical method of predicting the seismic performance of high‐rise buildings retrofitted with oil‐dampers installed inside and/or outside of the frames. The method extends the authors' previous one‐dimensional theory to a more general method that is applicable to buildings with internal and external oil‐dampers installed in an arbitrary story. The accuracy of the proposed method is demonstrated through numerical calculations using a model of a high‐rise building with and without internal and external oil‐dampers. The proposed method is effective in the preliminary stages of improving the seismic performance of high‐rise buildings.     

Earthquake response control of a super high‐rise structure subjected to long‐period ground motions via a novel viscous damped system with multilever mechanism

A novel viscous damped system and its principles are proposed in the paper. It is a novel viscous damped system with multilever mechanism that can improve the energy dissipation capacity of conventional viscous dampers. In order to compare the damping effects of the novel viscous damper with that of the conventional viscous damper, a shaking table test of a three‐story steel frame structure is performed. Testing results indicate that the novel viscous damped system is more efficient. The elastic time‐history analysis of a super high‐rise frame‐core tube structure is studied under the frequently occurring earthquake. Dynamic loads take two groups of ground motions with different period characteristics into account. Main response values such as base shear, interstory drift, and acceleration factor under long‐period ground motions are apparently larger than the seismic results due to standard ground motions. Responses between the undamped structure and the damped structure with conventional viscous dampers or the latest products are compared. It is concluded that the proposed viscous damped system can perform more effectively in reducing high‐rise structural responses subject to long‐period ground motions.     

Seismic response control of base‐isolated buildings using multiple tuned mass dampers

Seismic response of a base‐isolated building equipped with single tuned mass damper (STMD), multiple tuned mass dampers (MTMDs), and distributed multiple tuned mass dampers (d‐MTMDs) under real earthquake ground motions is investigated. Numerical study is carried out using analytical models of five‐, 10‐, and 15‐storey base‐isolated buildings equipped with the STMD, MTMDs, and d‐MTMDs. The buildings are modeled as shear‐type structure with a lateral degree of freedom at each floor level, and the buildings are isolated using the laminated rubber bearing, lead‐core rubber bearing, friction pendulum system, and resilient‐friction base isolator. The coupled differential equation of motion for the buildings are derived and solved in the incremental form using Newmark's step‐by‐step method of integration. From the numerical study conducted, it is concluded that installing a tuned mass damper at each floor level of a base‐isolated building reduces the structural response in terms of top floor acceleration and bearing displacement. It is found that installing the MTMDs and d‐MTMDs are significantly beneficial in reducing top floor acceleration as compared with the STMD. Further, almost comparable reduction in the bearing displacement could be obtained by installing the STMD, MTMDs at top, and d‐MTMDs in the base‐isolated buildings. The d‐MTMDs are more beneficial as compared with the STMD and MTMDs as otherwise huge controller mass can now be divided and distributed on different floor levels.     

A new control algorithm to protect nonlinear base‐isolated structures against earthquakes

Currently, nonlinear base isolation systems are widely used in the construction of earthquake resistant structures. However, they are found to be vulnerable in near‐fault regions as a result of long‐period pulses that may exist in near‐source ground motions. Various control strategies including passive, active and semi‐active control systems have been studied in order to handle this issue. In this study, a semi‐active control algorithm based on the different performance levels anticipated from an isolated building during different levels of ground shaking was developed. The proposed performance‐based algorithm is based on a modified version of the well‐known semi‐active skyhook control algorithm. A series of analyses were performed on the base‐isolated benchmark building, suggested by the American Society of Civil Engineers committee, subject to seven pairs of scaled ground‐motion records. The results proved that the new control algorithm is successful in improving structural and nonstructural performance of isolated buildings under near‐fault earthquakes. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

超高层结构地震位移及剪力响应峰值时滞效应研究

近年结构震害表明,超高层结构在远场地震动作用下出现了楼顶长时间大幅值晃动现象且时滞效应明显,其中大幅值晃动造成非结构构件破坏严重,现行设计方法对地震作用下超高层结构大变形的控制还有不足。因此,文中简要分析了结构响应峰值机理,对长周期结构进行了近场及远场地震波作用下的时程分析,研究了长周期结构响应峰值与地震波中和结构基本周期对应频率的脉冲族之间的相关性,讨论了结构弹塑性对超高层结构响应峰值时滞特征的影响。结果表明：超高层结构与地震波中对应频率的脉冲族产生类共振是引起结构大幅值晃动的主要原因,仅基于加速度反应谱拟合精度选出的地震波不能较好预测超高层结构的大变形;类共振出现在地震波衰减段时会引起时滞效应;结构弹塑性引起的刚度退化会影响结构响应峰值及其出现时刻。     

Vulnerability of steel moment‐resisting frames under effects of forward directivity

In near‐fault regions, forward directivity causes long‐period pulse‐like motions with high amplitude and short duration perpendicular to the fault surface. Pulse‐like motions have important roles in forming the distribution of damages over the structure height. Recent studies indicate that the number of spans influences the demand distribution over the moment frame's height. Considering the destruction of the buildings near causative fault in Bam earthquake, Iran (2003) demonstrates that most damages are concentrated in the ground floor of moment frames. Hence, in this study, forward directivity effect on vulnerability distribution of steel moment‐resisting frames with a few number of spans has been studied by nonlinear dynamic analysis of five structural models with different heights under 20 earthquake records. Related to frames height, results showed that 70% to 90% of forward directivity effects are accumulated in lower one‐third or half of model's height. Also, in near field of fault, growing rate of ductility demand at lower parts of model's height is two times higher than that of far‐fault regions. In addition, it was observed that ductility capacity in lower half of low‐rise or one‐third of high‐rise models has a key role in stability of moment frames under near‐fault pulse‐like motions. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Using orthogonal pairs of rollers on concave beds (OPRCB) as a base isolation system—part I: analytical,experimental and numerical studies of OPRCB isolators

A somehow new isolating system is introduced for short‐ to mid‐rise buildings. It does not need high technology for manufacturing and is not costly, contrary to other existing systems like lead‐rubber bearing or friction pendulum bearing systems. Each isolator of the proposed system consists of two Orthogonal Pairs of Rollers on Concave Beds (OPRCB). Rolling rods installed in two orthogonal directions make possible the movement of the superstructure in all horizontal directions. The concave beds, in addition to giving the system both restoring and re‐centring capabilities, make the force–displacement behaviour of the isolators to be of hardening type. The results of the studies on the specifications of the proposed isolating system and its application to buildings can be presented in two parts. Part I relates to the analytical formulations and the results of experimental and numerical studies of the system's mechanical feature, including its dynamical properties, and part II focuses on the effectiveness of the proposed isolation system in seismic response reduction of low‐ to mid‐rise buildings. In part I of the work, presented in this paper, at first general features of the OPRCB isolator are explained and the analytical formulation, governing its dynamic motion, is derived and discussed in detail. Then, the results of experimental and numerical investigations, including the lateral load displacement relationship of the OPRCB isolators under various vertical loads, obtained by both Finite Element Analyses (FEA) and laboratory tests are presented (FEA results have been verified by the laboratory tests). Finally, responses of some Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) systems, isolated by OPRCB devices, subjected to simultaneous effect of horizontal and vertical ground motions, are presented and compared with responses of their fixed‐base counterparts. Based on the numerical calculations, it is observed that the oscillation period of the isolated SDOF system is independent of its mass, the initial amplitude of its free vibration response and the value of rolling resistance coefficient. With regard to seismic response reduction it is seen that the amount of absolute accelerations in the SDOF systems, isolated by OPRCB devices, can be reduced drastically in comparison with the fixed‐base systems. Results also show that if the rollers and cylindrical beds are made of high‐strength steel materials, the system can be used effectively under the vertical loads of about the axial forces of ground floor columns in ordinary buildings up to 14 storeys. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Simplified procedures for seismic design verification and evaluation of lead rubber bearing base‐isolated buildings based on free‐vibration response

Base isolation has seen widespread application to buildings and infrastructures over the past four decades. However, there is a lack of methods for assessing the performance of a base‐isolated structure at the end of construction and during its service life. To this end, simplified methods are developed for verifying isolation design and evaluating seismic demands of rubber‐bearing‐supported base‐isolated buildings based on their free‐vibration response, which could be obtained using field (on‐site) testing. The base isolation layer consists of lead rubber bearings (LRBs) and linear natural rubber (LNR) bearings. For design verification purposes, analytical solutions are provided to benchmark the free‐vibration response of base‐isolated buildings, considering the general case of a multilinear hysteretic isolation response representing multiple LRBs with distinct mechanical specifications. In seismic demand evaluation, seismic capacity of an isolation system is estimated using free‐vibration response of various amplitudes that cover a range of expected seismic intensity of interest. Seismic demands are obtained when capacity coincides with an earthquake response spectrum at a compatible damping level. Procedures are developed for the potential use of snap‐back tests and verified using experimental and numerical data.     

Fuzzy‐Valued Intensity Measures for Near‐Fault Pulse‐Like Ground Motions

Two fuzzy‐valued (FV) structure‐specific intensity measures (IMs), one based on squared spectral velocity and the other on inelastic spectral displacement, are presented to characterize near‐fault pulse‐like ground motions for performance‐based seismic design and assessment of concrete frame structures. The first IM is designed through fuzzying structural fundamental period to account for the period shift effect due to stiffness degradation, whereas the second IM is developed to take into account higher mode contribution in high‐rise buildings by employing a fuzzy combination of the first two or three modes for the lateral loading pattern in pushover analysis. A benchmark study of three example reinforced concrete frame structures shows that for moderate‐ to medium‐period structures, both of the proposed IMs improve prediction accuracy in comparison with the existing IMs. For short‐period structures, the FV inelastic spectral displacement is the best.     

Optimal design and seismic performance of Multi‐Tuned Mass Damper Inerter (MTMDI) applied to adjacent high‐rise buildings

The tuned mass damper inerter (TMDI) is an enhanced variant of the tuned mass damper (TMD) that benefits from the mass‐amplification effect of the inerter. Here, a multi‐TMDI (MTMDI) system (comprising more than one TMDI) linking two adjacent high‐rise buildings is presented as an unconventional seismic protection strategy. The relative acceleration response of the adjacent structures triggers large reaction forces of the inerter devices in the MTMDI, which in turn efficiently improve the seismic performance of the two buildings. By addressing a real project of two adjacent high‐rise buildings connected by two corridors equipped with the proposed MTMDI system, the displacement‐, interstory drift‐, and acceleration‐based parametric optimizations are separately performed by employing Nondominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II (NSGA‐II) under 44 ground motions from the FEMA P695 far‐field record set. It is found that the frequency content of the seismic input has strong impact on the MTMDI mitigation performance. Adopting realistic mass ratio constraints, the optimally designed MTMDI outperforms both conventional MTMD and single TMDI in acceleration control, while it is not much effective in mitigating the displacement response due to the highly flexible nature of the high‐rise buildings, in contrast to other literature studies generally focused on low‐to‐medium rise buildings.     

Limitations of height‐to‐width ratio for base‐isolated buildings under earthquake

The limitation of height‐to‐width ratio (HWR) for a base‐isolated building with elastomeric rubber bearings is of considerable concern to structural design engineers. Guidelines and codes on this type of building have to deal with this issue. Nevertheless, until now, no systematical and quantitative studies have been done on this problem for base‐isolated buildings. For this reason, the main objective of this paper is to focus on investigations on the limit of the HWR for the isolated building with rubber bearings under different conditions subjected to earthquake excitations. The simplified formulation is derived to explore the rules of seismic responses for the structural system and some influential factors, such as the site soil conditions, seismic ground motion intensity, period of the isolated system, period of the superstructure and layout of isolators, are studied and discussed. According to the numerical results, it has been found that the effects of site soil conditions on the HWR limit values are important: the softer the site is, the smaller the HWR limit value is under different seismic intensities. The predominant period of an isolated building also plays a considerable role in the HWR limit value, namely, the isolated building with a longer period may have a relatively large HWR value; and the stiffness of the superstructure affects the HWR limit value little. Furthermore, an effective method to improve the HWR limit value is proposed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Influence of soil‐structure interaction on performance of a super tall building using a new eddy‐current tuned mass damper

Tuned mass dampers (TMDs) can be used as vibration control devices to improve the vibration performance of high‐rise buildings. The Shanghai Tower (SHT) is a 632‐m high landmark building in China, featuring a new eddy‐current TMD. Special protective mechanisms have been adopted to prevent excessively large amplitude of the TMD under extreme wind or earthquake loading scenarios. This paper presents a methodology for simulating behavior of the new eddy‐current TMD that features displacement‐dependent damping behavior. The TMD model was built into the SHT finite element model to perform frequency analysis and detailed response analyses under wind and earthquake loads. Furthermore, soil‐structure interaction (SSI) effects on wind and seismic load responses of the SHT model were investigated, as SSI has a significant impact on the vibration performance of high‐rise buildings. It was found that SSI has more significant effects on acceleration response for wind loads with a short return period than for wind loads with a long return period. Some of the acceleration responses with SSI effects exceed design limits of human comfort for wind loads with shorter return periods. As to the seismic analyses, it was found that SSI slightly reduces the displacement amplitude, the damping force, and the impact force of the TMD.     

Seismic isolation columns for earthquake‐resistant structures

Seismic isolation is a well‐known trend in earthquake design of structures. It enables a reduction in structural response to earthquakes and minimizes possible damage to buildings. This paper deals with a new constructive solution for seismic isolation, adapted to a structural scheme traditionally used in the Mediterranean region; it is usually presented as an open ground floor with a system of reinforced‐concrete columns, supported on single bases. The best‐known base isolation systems, implemented in existing structures, are elastomeric bearings and friction pendulums. The proposed solution is based on the idea of pendulum suspension brackets installed in seismic isolation columns. The main differences between existing solutions and the proposed one are that the latter requires no additional space for its installation, its lifetime corresponds to that of the structure, and no service is required during the entire period. The proposed solution provides additional damping and, like other base isolation systems, shifts the vibration period of the structure, reducing its spectral response. Since its size is compact, the ground‐floor columns of existing structures with low seismic capacity may easily be replaced by the proposed ones. It yields significant improvement in structural seismic response. Numerical simulation shows that buildings where the proposed system is installed are likely to sustain minimal damage, or none at all, whereas traditionally designed ones may suffer major damage or even collapse due to the same earthquake. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

基于总输入能量谱与瞬时输入能量谱的设计谱修正

地震动中的长周期成分对长周期结构的影响不容忽视,现行的设计反应谱为了保证长周期结构抗震设计具备保守性,人为增大了特定频段和特定场地条件的谱值。针对目前设计谱的不足,依据线性单自由度体系的地震动总输入能量谱和瞬时输入能量谱,对规范反应谱5Tg～6s直线下降段提出调整方法。从具有速度 脉冲特征的长周期地震记录中选出能量谱值最大的地震记录加以说明,得到修正后的加速度谱与相应的拟速度谱和位移谱。建议的反应谱修正方法综合体现了总输入能量与瞬时输入能量的特征,对于工程结构设计具有重要的理论意义和实用价值。     

High‐performance control of wind‐induced vibration of high‐rise building via innovative high‐hardness rubber damper

High‐hardness viscoelastic rubber dampers are used to upgrade both the habitability environment and the structural safety in high‐rise buildings subjected to wind disturbances. While most of usual viscoelastic dampers have limitation on temperature and frequency dependencies, etc., the proposed high‐hardness viscoelastic rubber dampers possess many unprecedented properties. High hardness, large stiffness, small temperature and frequency dependencies are examples of such properties. Mechanical modelling of the proposed high‐hardness viscoelastic rubber dampers is introduced first, and the wind‐induced response of high‐rise buildings with and without the proposed high‐hardness viscoelastic rubber dampers is computed under dynamic horizontal loads derived from wind tunnel tests. It is shown that high‐rise buildings with the proposed high‐hardness viscoelastic rubber dampers exhibit extremely smaller wind‐induced responses (both along‐wind and cross‐wind responses) than those without such dampers. In particular, a remarkable reduction of acceleration has been achieved owing to sufficient hysteresis even in the small strain range. It is concluded that the proposed high‐hardness viscoelastic rubber dampers can upgrade the habitability environment of building structures dramatically. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Seismic response of a 40‐storey buckling‐restrained braced frame designed for the Los Angeles region

This study utilized nonlinear response history analysis to compare the seismic demand on three variations of a 40‐storey buckling‐restrained braced frame designed for high seismic hazard in the Los Angeles region. The three designs were referred to as a ‘code‐based design’, based on the 2006 International Building Code, a ‘performance‐based design’, based on criteria published by the Los Angeles Tall Building Design Council (LATBSDC) and a ‘performance‐based design plus’, based on newly developed criteria from The Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Center (PEER). The response history analysis utilized spectrum‐matched ground motions as well as simulated ground motions for the Puente Hills fault. The spectrum‐matched motions were selected from the Next Generation Attenuation of Ground Motions (NGA) database, which is largely composed of recorded motions and scaled to five hazard levels. The simulated ground motions were broadband signals generated from a moment magnitude (M_w) 7.15 scenario rupture of the Puente Hills fault for two near fault regions and exhibit long period energy content that significantly exceeds the uniform hazard spectrum. Structural performance was assessed in terms of exceedance of a safe inter‐storey drift ratio (IDR). It was seen that the simulated ground motions impose higher IDR demands on the structures than the spectrum‐matched NGA ground motions. Furthermore, the number of instances of exceedance of a safe IDR, considered for this study as IDR = 0.03, is substantially higher for the simulated ground motions, pointing to the importance of considering such motions in the collapse prevention of tall buildings on a site‐specific basis. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Using orthogonal pairs of rollers on concave beds (OPRCB) as a base isolation system—part II: application to multi‐story and tall buildings

Application of orthogonal pairs of rollers on concave beds (OPRCB) isolating system to short‐ and mid‐rise buildings is presented in this paper. At first, the analytical formulation of the set of equations, governing the motion of Multi Degree of Freedom (MDOF) systems, isolated by OPRCB isolators, has been developed. Then, some multi‐story regular buildings of shear type have been considered, once on fixed bases and once installed on the OPRCB isolators. Next, some horizontal and vertical accelerograms of both far‐ and near‐fault earthquakes with low‐ to high‐frequency content, particularly those with remarkable peak ground displacement values, have been selected and normalized to three peak ground acceleration levels of 0.15 g, 0.35 g and 0.7 g, and their stronger horizontal component simultaneous with their vertical component have been used for response analysis of the considered buildings. Story drifts and absolute acceleration response histories of isolated buildings have been calculated by using a program, developed in MATLAB environment by using the fourth‐order Runge–Kutta method, considering the geometrically nonlinear behavior of isolators. Maximum relative displacement and story drifts as well as absolute acceleration responses of considered isolated buildings for various earthquakes have been compared with those of corresponding fixed‐base buildings to show the high efficiency of using OPRCB isolators in multi‐story and tall regular buildings. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Seismic isolation design of the San Bernardino County Medical Center replacement project

The San Bernardino County Medical Center Replacement Project, located in Colton, California, consists of six separate building structures containing a total of approximately 920 000 ft² of floor space for hospital and support services. Five of the six buildings will be base isolated. Each of the five base isolated buildings is of different size and configuration, ranging from a six story, 360 000 ft² curved front Nursing Tower to a two story, 24 000 ft² rectangular shaped Central Plant building. The building structures will be framed with structural steel, utilizing concentric braced frames as the lateral force resisting system. The design ground motion for the site, which is located 3 km and 15 km from the San Jacinto and San Andreas faults respectively, is very severe. A base isolation system has been designed for this facility which will provide an essentially elastic building response to the design strong ground motion. The base isolation system is a hybrid passive energy dissipation system consisting of both linear and nonlinear and high damping rubber bearings along with viscous damping devices located at the base of the structure. The high damping rubber bearings provide both lateral stiffness which governs the fundamental period of vibration of the system, and hysteretic damping, while the viscous damping devices provide velocity dependent damping which serves to control overall building displacements. This will maximize the probability that this essential facility will remain fully operational after a major earthquake. Design criteria, structural analysis and design methodologies, and construction details are presented and discussed. The response of one of the base isolated structures is calculated utilizing actual recorded ground motions from the 1994 Northridge earthquake.     

不同地震动作用下高层结构响应比较研究

近年的大地震中,远离震中的高层建筑在长周期地震动作用下响应强烈。研究以高层钢筋混凝土结构为对象,选取不同频谱特征的地震波,分别以加速度标准化和速度标准化两种方式调幅进行弹塑性时程分析。结果表明:加速度峰值相同的条件下,长周期地震动对高层结构影响更大,且结构响应受位移控制,速度和能量与高层结构的地震响应关系密切。