Personality and attitudes as predictors of risky driving among older drivers

Although there are several studies on the effects of personality and attitudes on risky driving among young drivers, related research in older drivers is scarce. The present study assessed a model of personality-attitudes-risky driving in a large sample of active older drivers. A cross-sectional design was used, and structured and anonymous questionnaires were completed by 485 older Italian drivers (Mean age = 68.1, SD = 6.2, 61.2% males). The measures included personality traits, attitudes toward traffic safety, risky driving (errors, lapses, and traffic violations), and self-reported crash involvement and number of issued traffic tickets in the last 12 months. Structural equation modeling showed that personality traits predicted both directly and indirectly traffic violations, errors, and lapses. More positive attitudes toward traffic safety negatively predicted risky driving. In turn, risky driving was positively related to self-reported crash involvement and higher number of issued traffic tickets. Our findings suggest that theoretical models developed to account for risky driving of younger drivers may also apply in the older drivers, and accordingly be used to inform safe driving interventions for this age group.     

Crash risk and aberrant driving behaviors among bus drivers: The role of personality and attitudes towards traffic safety

Several studies have shown that personality traits and attitudes toward traffic safety predict aberrant driving behaviors and crash involvement. However, this process has not been adequately investigated in professional drivers, such as bus drivers. The present study used a personality–attitudes model to assess whether personality traits predicted aberrant self-reported driving behaviors (driving violations, lapses, and errors) both directly and indirectly, through the effects of attitudes towards traffic safety in a large sample of bus drivers. Additionally, the relationship between aberrant self-reported driving behaviors and crash risk was also assessed.     

Cognitive failures as predictors of driving errors, lapses, and violations

Dual-process models from the cognitive literature have proposed a taxonomy of cognitive failures in everyday activities, and this novel approach was applied to understanding driver behaviour. This framework was used to examine whether categories of cognitive failure would explain driving errors, driving lapses, and driving violations in a sample of undergraduates at a large urban university. Two types of cognitive failure were examined, one associated with missing affective information and the other associated with a failure to engage effortful processes to override an automatic response. Alexithymia was used as an indicator of missing affective information, and attention regulation, reactivity, and impulsivity were used as indicators of override failure. Relevant demographic variables included gender and hours typically driven. Override failures were significantly associated with driving behaviour in the correlational analyses. In the regression analyses, attention regulation predicted driving errors, and gender, attention regulation, and impulsivity predicted driving violations. The implications of this work include the potential application to driver training, to users of informatics devices (e.g., GPS, cellular phones, messaging systems), and for individuals diagnosed with attention and/or impulsivity problems.     

Self-reports of aberrant behaviour on the roads: errors and violations in a sample of Greek drivers

Recent studies have shown that unsafe driver acts can be classified into two distinct categories (i.e.. errors and violations) entailing different measures for reducing road traffic accidents. A survey of over 1,400 drivers in Greece is reported in which a variety of aberrant driving behaviours have been identified. The present study has confirmed the results of earlier studies in the driving populations of Britain. Australia and Sweden that errors and violations are the major determinants in the factor structure of aberrant behaviours. Three types of violations were identified including, highway code-, aggressive- and parking-violations (or situational violations). Mistakes and lapses were two major forms of errors. The factor analysis identified another two classes of behaviour that could not be accounted for very well by the error-violation distinction. One class of behaviours referred to a state of low preparedness and negligence while the other class referred to communication errors and 'social disregard' for the other road users. Each class of behaviour was found to have different demographic correlates. Finally, accident liability was predicted by self-reported tendency to commit highway-code violations, but not by tendency to make errors due to failures of judgement (i.e.. mistakes) or lapses. Aggressive violations were significantly related to involvement in speeding convictions and law-breaking whilst highway-code violations were related to speeding convictions only.     

Young driver accidents in the UK: the influence of age, experience, and time of day

Young drivers, especially males, have relatively more accidents than other drivers. Young driver accidents also have somewhat different characteristics to those of other drivers; they include single vehicle accidents involving loss of control; excess speed for conditions; accidents during darkness; accidents on single carriageway rural roads; and accidents while making cross-flow turns (i.e. turning right in the UK, equivalent to a left turn in the US and continental Europe). A sample of over 3000 accident cases was considered from midland British police forces, involving drivers aged 17-25 years, and covering a two year period. Four types of accident were analysed: right-turns; rear-end shunts; loss of control on curves; and accidents in darkness. Loss of control on curves and accidents in darkness were found to be a particular problem for younger drivers. It was found that cross-flow turn accidents showed the quickest improvement with increasing driver experience, whereas accidents occurring in darkness with no street lighting showed the slowest rate of improvement. 'Time of day' analyses suggested that the problems of accidents in darkness are not a matter of visibility, but a consequence of the way young drivers use the roads at night. There appears to be a large number of accidents associated with voluntary risk-taking behaviours of young drivers in 'recreational' driving.     

Hurried driving: Relationship to distress tolerance,driver anger,aggressive and risky driving in college students

Being a hurried driver is associated with a variety of risky driving behaviors, yet the mechanisms underlying this behavior remain unknown. Distress tolerance, defined as an individual's capability to experience and endure negative emotional states, was examined as a predictor of hurried driving among 769 college students. Results indicate that after controlling for age, gender, race, ethnicity, the student's year in school, their grade point average, driving frequency, angry driving, aggressive driving as well as other forms of self-reported risky driving; hurried driving was significantly associated with lower levels of distress tolerance. Hurried drivers also reported greater levels of frustration and impatience with other drivers, suggesting that they have difficulty in withstanding or coping with negative psychological states when driving. Traditional traffic safety campaigns that emphasize enforcement may be less successful with these drivers. The need to develop campaigns that address the affective coping abilities that contribute to this behavioral pattern is discussed.     

Personality domains and traits that predict self-reported aberrant driving behaviours in a southeastern US university sample

Personality traits are meaningful predictors of many significant life outcomes, including mortality. Several studies have investigated the relationship between specific personality traits and driving behaviours, e.g., aggression and speeding, in an attempt to identify traits associated with elevated crash risk. These studies, while valuable, are limited in that they examine only a narrow range of personality constructs and thus do not necessarily reveal which traits in constellation best predict aberrant driving behaviours. The primary aim of this study was to use a comprehensive measure of personality to investigate which personality traits are most predictive of four types of aberrant driving behaviour (Aggressive Violations, Ordinary Violations, Errors, Lapses) as indicated by the Manchester Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ). We recruited 285 young adults (67% female) from a university in the southeastern US. They completed self-report questionnaires including the DBQ and the Personality Inventory for DSM-5, which indexes 5 broad personality domains (Antagonism, Detachment, Disinhibition, Negative Affectivity, Psychoticism) and 25 specific trait facets. Confirmatory factor analysis showed adequate evidence for the DBQ internal structure. Structural regression analyses revealed that the personality domains of Antagonism and Negative Affectivity best predicted both Aggressive Violations and Ordinary Violations, whereas the best predictors of both Errors and Lapses were Negative Affectivity, Disinhibition and to a lesser extent Antagonism. A more nuanced analysis of trait facets revealed that Hostility was the best predictor of Aggressive Violations; Risk-taking and Hostility of Ordinary Violations; Irresponsibility, Separation Insecurity and Attention Seeking of Errors; and Perseveration and Irresponsibility of Lapses.     

Errors and violations in relation to motorcyclists' crash risk

This study was conducted to: (a) develop a questionnaire that reliably measures the behaviour of motorcyclists and (b) test which types of behaviour predict motorcyclists' crash risk. A Motorcycle Rider Behaviour Questionnaire (MRBQ), consisting of 43 items to measure the self-reported frequency of specific riding behaviours, was developed and administered to a sample of motorcyclists (N=8666). Principal components analysis revealed a 5-factor solution (traffic errors, control errors, speed violations, performance of stunts and use of safety equipment). Generalised linear modelling showed that, while controlling for the effects of age, experience and annual mileage, traffic errors were the main predictors of crash risk. For crashes in which respondents accepted some degree of blame, control errors and speed violations were also significant predictors of crash risk. Implications of the findings are discussed in relation to deciding which countermeasures may be most effective at reducing motorcycle casualty rates.     

Young drivers' optimism bias for accident risk and driving skill: Accountability and insight experience manipulations

This study aimed to determine whether two brief, low cost interventions would reduce young drivers’ optimism bias for their driving skills and accident risk perceptions. This tendency for such drivers to perceive themselves as more skilful and less prone to driving accidents than their peers may lead to less engagement in precautionary driving behaviours and a greater engagement in more dangerous driving behaviour. 243 young drivers (aged 17–25 years) were randomly allocated to one of three groups: accountability, insight or control. All participants provided both overall and specific situation ratings of their driving skills and accident risk relative to a typical young driver. Prior to completing the questionnaire, those in the accountability condition were first advised that their driving skills and accident risk would be later assessed via a driving simulator. Those in the insight condition first underwent a difficult computer-based hazard perception task designed to provide participants with insight into their potential limitations when responding to hazards in difficult and unpredictable driving situations. Participants in the control condition completed only the questionnaire. Results showed that the accountability manipulation was effective in reducing optimism bias in terms of participants’ comparative ratings of their accident risk in specific situations, though only for less experienced drivers. In contrast, among more experienced males, participants in the insight condition showed greater optimism bias for overall accident risk than their counterparts in the accountability or control groups. There were no effects of the manipulations on drivers’ skills ratings. The differential effects of the two types of manipulations on optimism bias relating to one's accident risk in different subgroups of the young driver sample highlight the importance of targeting interventions for different levels of experience. Accountability interventions may be beneficial for less experienced young drivers but the results suggest exercising caution with the use of insight type interventions, particularly hazard perception style tasks, for more experienced young drivers typically still in the provisional stage of graduated licensing systems.     

The influence of the elements of procedural justice and speed camera enforcement on young novice driver self-reported speeding

Road policing is an important tool used to modify road user behaviour. While other theories, such as deterrence theory, are significant in road policing, there may be a role for using procedural justice as a framework to improve outcomes in common police citizen interactions such as traffic law enforcement. This study, using a sample of 237 young novice drivers, considered how the four elements of procedural justice (voice, neutrality, respect and trustworthiness) were perceived in relation to two forms of speed enforcement: point-to-point (or average) speed and mobile speed cameras. Only neutrality was related to both speed camera types suggesting that it may be possible to influence behaviour by emphasising one or more elements, rather than using all components of procedural justice. This study is important as it indicates that including at least some elements of procedural justice in more automated policing encounters can encourage citizen compliance.     

Age, skill, and hazard perception in driving

This study examined the effects of age and driving experience on the ability to detect hazards while driving; namely, hazard perception. Studies have shown that young-inexperienced drivers are more likely than experienced drivers to suffer from hazard perception deficiencies. However, it remains to be determined if this skill deteriorates with advancing age. Twenty-one young-inexperienced, 19 experienced, and 16 elderly drivers viewed six hazard perception movies while connected to an eye tracking system and were requested to identify hazardous situations. Four movies embedded planned, highly hazardous, situations and the rest were used as control. Generally, experienced and older-experienced drivers were equally proficient at hazard detection and detected potentially hazardous events (e.g., approaching an intersection, pedestrians on curb) continuously whereas young-inexperienced drivers stopped reporting on hazards that followed planned, highly hazardous situations. Moreover, while approaching T intersections older and experienced drivers fixated more towards the merging road on the right while young-inexperienced drivers fixated straight ahead, paying less attention to potential vehicles on the merging road. The study suggests that driving experience improves drivers’ awareness of potential hazards and guides drivers’ eye movements to locations that might embed potential risks. Furthermore, advanced age hardly affects older drivers’ ability to perceive hazards, and older drivers are at least partially aware of their age-related limitations.     

Changes in self-reported driving intentions and attitudes while learning to drive in Great Britain

Novice drivers are overrepresented in traffic collisions, especially in their first year of solo driving. It is widely accepted that some driving behaviours (such as speeding and thrill-seeking) increase risk in this group. Increasingly research is suggesting that attitudes and behavioural intentions held in the pre-driver and learning stage are important in determining later driver behaviour in solo driving. In this study we examine changes in several self-reported attitudes and behavioural intentions across the learning stage in a sample of learner drivers in Great Britain. A sample of 204 learner drivers completed a self-report questionnaire near the beginning of their learning, and then again shortly after they passed their practical driving test. Results showed that self-reported intentions regarding speed choice, perceptions regarding skill level, and intentions regarding thrill-seeking (through driving) became less safe over this time period, while self-reported intentions regarding following distance and overtaking tendency became safer. The results are discussed with reference to models of driver behaviour that focus on task difficulty; it is suggested that the manner in which behind-the-wheel experience relates to the risk measures of interest may be the key determining factor in how these change over the course of learning to drive.     

Measuring errors and violations on the road: A bifactor modeling approach to the Driver Behavior Questionnaire

The Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) is a self-report measure of driving behavior that has been widely used over more than 20 years. Despite this wealth of evidence a number of questions remain, including understanding the correlation between its violations and errors sub-components, identifying how these components are related to crash involvement, and testing whether a DBQ based on a reduced number of items can be effective. We address these issues using a bifactor modeling approach to data drawn from the UK Cohort II longitudinal study of novice drivers. This dataset provides observations on 12,012 drivers with DBQ data collected at .5, 1, 2 and 3 years after passing their test. A bifactor model, including a general factor onto which all items loaded, and specific factors for ordinary violations, aggressive violations, slips and errors fitted the data better than correlated factors and second-order factor structures. A model based on only 12 items replicated this structure and produced factor scores that were highly correlated with the full model. The ordinary violations and general factor were significant independent predictors of crash involvement at 6 months after starting independent driving. The discussion considers the role of the general and specific factors in crash involvement.     

Explicit and implicit self-enhancement biases in drivers and their relationship to driving violations and crash-risk optimism

Previous research has found that drivers tend to consider themselves superior to their peers on both driving ability and driving caution, as well as judging themselves as at less risk of a crash (crash-risk optimism). These studies have relied on explicit measures by getting drivers to respond to written items. The current study measured 158 New Zealand drivers’ explicit and implicit attitudes towards their own driving attributes in comparison with others. Implicit attitudes were measured using a computer-based reaction time task, the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Both explicit and implicit self-enhancement biases were found in driver ability and driver caution. Implicit biases were considerably stronger than explicit biases and men demonstrated stronger self-enhancement biases in driving ability than women. Explicit and implicit ratings of driving ability and explicit ratings of driver caution predicted crash-risk optimism. Explicit and implicit ratings of driving caution predicted a measure of driving violations. The implications for safety interventions and research on drivers’ mental processes are discussed particularly in regard to the ability of implicit measures to bypass social desirability effects.     

Relationships between interest in motor racing and driver attitudes and behaviour amongst mature drivers: an Australian case study

Interest in motor racing is investigated as a possible source of influence on driver attitudes toward speeding and driver behaviour. Previous studies have identified links between motor racing and road accidents on public roads. One study found that the level of interest in motor racing was positively correlated with risky driving behaviours of young male drivers. This paper outlines a conceptual framework for investigating the association between interest in motor racing and speeding violations on public roads. A sample survey of households in Queanbeyan, NSW, was used to examine the relationship between the level of interest in motor racing and attitudes to speeding and driving violations in a group of mature drivers. Results indicate that the level of interest in motor racing is significantly related to attitudes towards speeding, controlling for age, education level and sensation seeking propensity. Higher levels of interest in motor racing are associated with higher pro-speeding attitudes. Unlike the previous research on young male drivers, there was no significant relationship between interest in motor racing and speeding violations for this study of mature drivers. The implications of the study for road safety interventions are discussed.     

Exploring the effects of driving experience on hazard awareness and risk perception via real-time hazard identification,hazard classification,and rating tasks

This study investigated the effects of driving experience on hazard awareness and risk perception skills. These topics have previously been investigated separately, yet a novel approach is suggested where hazard awareness and risk perception are examined concurrently. Young, newly qualified drivers, experienced drivers, and a group of commercial drivers, namely, taxi drivers performed three consecutive tasks: (1) observed 10 short movies of real-world driving situations and were asked to press a button each time they identified a hazardous situation; (2) observed one of three possible sub-sets of 8 movies (out of the 10 they have seen earlier) for the second time, and were asked to categorize them into an arbitrary number of clusters according to the similarity in their hazardous situation; and (3) observed the same sub-set for a third time and following each movie were asked to rate its level of hazardousness. The first task is considered a real-time identification task while the other two are performed using hindsight. During it participants’ eye movements were recorded. Results showed that taxi drivers were more sensitive to hidden hazards than the other driver groups and that young-novices were the least sensitive. Young-novice drivers also relied heavily on materialized hazards in their categorization structure. In addition, it emerged that risk perception was derived from two major components: the likelihood of a crash and the severity of its outcome. Yet, the outcome was rarely considered under time pressure (i.e., in real-time hazard identification tasks). Using hindsight, when drivers were provided with the opportunity to rate the movies’ hazardousness more freely (rating task) they considered both components. Otherwise, in the categorization task, they usually chose the severity of the crash outcome as their dominant criterion. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Personality traits and executive functions related to on-road driving performance among older drivers

The present study investigated how executive functions and personality traits are related with driving performance among older drivers. Forty-two participants aged 60 and over were recruited to complete a battery of cognitive tests, measures of personality traits and an on-road driving test. Significant correlations were found between poor driving performances and low scores on tests assessing shifting and updating functions. In addition, extraversion had a negative relation with driving performance and made the only contribution, among the psychological factors, to the prediction of driving performance. Finally, gender and age emerged as the best predictors of on-road driving performance. Gender, personality traits and executive functions should be taken into account when studying safety among older drivers.     

Car driver attitudes,perceptions of social norms and aggressive driving behaviour towards cyclists

The interaction of car drivers and cyclists is one of the main causes of cycle incidents. The role of attitudes and social norms in shaping car drivers’ aggressive behaviour towards cyclists, is not well understood and merits investigation. A sample of 276 drivers completed an online questionnaire concerning their attitudes towards cyclists, attitudes towards risky driving, perception of social norms concerning aggressive driving towards cyclists, and the frequency with which they engage in such aggressive driving behaviours. The results showed that attitudes towards cyclists, as well as social norm perceptions concerning aggressive driving towards cyclists, were associated with aggressive driving towards cyclists. Negative attitudes towards cyclists were more pronounced in non-cyclists than cyclists and their association with aggressive driving behaviour was stronger in cyclists than non-cyclists. The perception of social norms concerning aggressive driving towards cyclists had a stronger association with aggressive driving in non-cyclists than cyclists. Attitudes towards risk taking did not affect aggressive driving towards cyclists. These findings can inform campaigns that aim to improve cyclist and car driver interaction on the roads, making them safer to use for cyclists.     

Young driver crash rates by licensing age,driving experience,and license phase

Background

Few studies have concurrently assessed the influence of age and experience on young driver crashes, in particular in the post-Graduated Driver Licensing (GDL) era. Further, little attention is given to the transition from intermediate to full licensure. We examined the independent and joint contributions of licensing age, driving experience, and GDL license phase on crash rates among the population of young New Jersey (NJ) drivers.

Methods

From a unique linked database containing licensing and crash data, we selected all drivers who obtained their NJ intermediate license at 17–20 years old from 2006–2009 (n = 410,230). We determined the exact age at which each driver obtained an intermediate and full license and created distinct, fixed cohorts of drivers based on their age at intermediate licensure. For each cohort, we calculated and graphed observed monthly crash rates over the first 24 months of licensure. Further, we examined crash rates by age at licensure, driving experience (i.e., time since licensure), and license phase.

Results

First-month crash rates were higher among the youngest drivers (licensed at 17y0m). Drivers who were licensed later experienced a reduced “steepness” in the slope of their crash rates in the critical initial months of driving, but there did not appear to be any incremental benefit of later licensure once drivers had six months of driving experience. Further, at each age, those with more driving experience had lower crash rates; however, the benefit of increased experience was greatest for the substantial proportion of teens licensed immediately after becoming eligible (at 17y0m). Finally, independent of age and experience, teen drivers’ crash risk increased substantially at the point of transition to a full license, while drivers of a similar age who remained in the intermediate phase continued to experience a decline in crash rates.

Conclusion

Age and driving experience interact to influence crash rates. Further, independent of these two factors, there is an abrupt increase in crash risk at the point of transition from intermediate to full licensure. Future studies should investigate whether this increase is accounted for by a change in driving exposure, driving behaviors, and/or other factors.     

Young novice drivers and the risky behaviours of parents and friends during the Provisional (intermediate) licence phase: A brief report

Purpose

While there is research indicating that many factors influence the young novice driver's increased risk of road crash injury during the earliest stages of their independent driving, there is a need to further understand the relationship between the perceived risky driving behaviour of parents and friends and the risky behaviour of drivers with a Provisional (intermediate) licence.

Method

As part of a larger research project, 378 drivers aged 17–25 years (M = 18.22, SD = 1.59, 113 males) with a Provisional licence completed an online survey exploring the perceived riskiness of their parents’ and friends’ driving, and the extent to which they pattern (i.e. base) their driving behaviour on the driving of their parents and friends.

Results

Young drivers who reported patterning their driving on their friends, and who reported they perceived their friends to be risky drivers, reported more risky driving. The risky driving behaviour of young male drivers was associated with the perceived riskiness of their fathers’ driving, whilst for female drivers the perceived riskiness of their mothers’ driving approached significance.

Conclusions

The development and application of countermeasures targeting the risky behaviour of same-sex parents appears warranted by the robust research findings. In addition, countermeasures need to encourage young people in general to be non-risky drivers; targeting the negative influence of risky peer groups specifically. Social norms interventions may minimise the influence of potentially-overestimated riskiness.