Digital landscape modeling and visualization: a research agenda

Digital landscape models, whether made for purposes of ‘visual inference’, or for simulating and understanding behavior or other invisible aspects of the landscape, require abstractions and simplifications. Yet for many visual purposes, ‘realistic’ depictions are desirable. The conflicts between these two demands are substantial for landscape modelers. For the basic landscape elements — terrain, vegetation, and water — some standard techniques for convincing static visual representation have been developed, but many complicating questions and obstacles remain. In addition, landscapes are essentially dynamic, and digital techniques for representation of these dynamics are still in their infancy. Surveying these techniques, complications, and possibilities leads to some generalized comments about the promises and problems of landscape modeling, and to a handful of proposed research topics to help pursue the landscape modeling agenda.     

The role of land abandonment in landscape dynamics in the SPA ‘Encinares del río Alberche y Cofio, Central Spain, 1984–1999

Land use has changed dramatically over the last 30–40 years throughout the Mediterranean. Much of this change has been driven by shifts in agricultural and socio-economic policy. This paper explores landscape dynamics in the SPA ‘Encinares del río Alberche y Cofio’ Central Spain between 1984 and 1999 in an area of approximately 83,000 ha. Categorical land cover maps, derived from three (1984, 1991 and 1999) remotely sensed Landsat images, are analyzed using a suite of landscape pattern metrics, and a simple transition matrix model of landscape change is developed. As with other landscapes in the Mediterranean a key trend is that of the abandonment of agricultural land and its subsequent succession to scrubland and woodland. Although there were significant composition changes in the landscape over the study period configurational changes are less evident. The transition matrix model suggests that there were differences in landscape dynamics between 1984–1991 and 1991–1999—most importantly an increase in the rate of land abandonment is evident. The model predicts a steady state landscape containing a higher abundance of scrubland and woodland, and a corresponding decline in pastureland and cropland. Finally, the underlying socio-economic and other drivers of landscape change in the Encinares del río Alberche y Cofio and some of the implications of recent changes are discussed in terms of increased wildfire risk. Sustainable management of landscapes to protect biodiversity requires the type of study described here. A necessary pre-requisite of such management activities or planning is an assessment of changes in landscape pattern and process, the social and economic pressures driving them, and their possible effects on ecosystem structure and function.     

Spatial heterogeneity and diversity of vegetation at the landscape level in Inner Mongolia, China, with special reference to water resources

Inner Mongolia, China, was divided into five different areas (landscapes) based on the annual overland flow of water (AOF): <2, 2–5, 5–10, 10–50, and >50 mm. Two maps of plant communities with a 1-cm² grid and the AOF were overlaid (scale: 1 cm = 15 km). Each plant community that occurred in each 1 cm × 1 cm cell (S-cell) was recorded, and the number of occurrences of each community type was counted for groups of four neighboring S-cells (L-cell). These data were statistically analyzed using the power law for each of the five landscapes. The per L-cell community richness and diversity for dry (AOF < 2 mm) and subhumid (AOF > 50 mm) landscapes were low compared to those of the three mesic landscapes (2–50 mm AOF). Community spatial heterogeneity was low in mesic landscapes. The dry and subhumid landscapes consisted of a small number of community types and exhibited monotonous spatial change, while the mesic landscapes consisted of rich plant communities that were spatially intermingled because natural conditions, such as climatic and edaphic conditions, in the landscapes are complex and divided into small areas, and, furthermore, historical anthropogenic activities such as livestock grazing, especially in landscapes with AOFs of 2–50 mm, have divided the landscape into small fragments.     

Relationships between visual landscape preferences and map-based indicators of landscape structure

There is increasing awareness of the need to monitor trends in our constantly changing agricultural landscapes. Monitoring programmes often use remote sensing data and focus on changes in land cover/land use in relation to values such as biodiversity, cultural heritage and recreation. Although a wide range of indicators is in use, landscape aesthetics is a topic that is frequently neglected. Our aim was to determine whether aspects of landscape content and configuration could be used as surrogate measures for visual landscape quality in monitoring programmes based on remote sensing. In this paper, we test whether map-derived indicators of landscape structure from the Norwegian monitoring programme for agricultural landscapes are correlated with visual landscape preferences. Two groups of people participated: (1) locals and (2) non-local students. Using the total dataset, we found significant positive correlations between preferences and spatial metrics, including number of land types, number of patches and land type diversity. In addition, preference scores were high where water was present within the mapped image area, even if the water itself was not visible in the images. When the dataset was split into two groups, we found no significant correlation between the preference scores of the students and locals. Whilst the student group preferred images portraying diverse and heterogeneous landscapes, neither diversity nor heterogeneity was correlated with the preference scores of the locals. We conclude that certain indicators based on spatial structure also have relevance in relation to landscape preferences in agricultural landscapes. However, the finding that different groups of people prefer different types of landscape underlines the need for care when interpreting indicator values.     

Visual preference of the public for vegetation groups in Israel

This study describes a method for classifying and evaluating the visual qualities of selected native and planned forests and other vegetation groups in Israel, and for identifying the degree of visual preference by selected groups of users. Forty-four vegetation groups were selected. Sets of four coloured photographs of each vegetation group were presented to 150 individuals at formal interviews in their homes. Statistical analysis of the answers led to three main conclusions: (1) the existing botanical–ecological classification of vegetation groups used in the study was found to be suitable for the evaluation of its visual qualities; (2) levels of public preference varied and depended on the types of vegetation group; and (3) visual preference for vegetation types could be derived from the individual plants’ physical properties and the latter could be used to forecast the level of public visual preference for a proposed vegetation plan. This study, therefore, suggests a workable evaluation method that could be used for identifying and evaluating public preference for vegetation groups. The findings regarding public preference provide an empirically tested basis for policy planning and the management of other vegetation resources in Israel.     

Great Vasyugan Mire: landscape structure and peat deposit structure features

Research into the medium-forming role of bogs is done in the confined space of bog sites. Various bog types with specific conditions react to global climate change in different ways. To extrapolate fairly the data of selective (to the scale of Western Siberia) researches, the information about bog cover structure of a large area is necessary. In the paper, we present the data concerning landscape structure of the Great Vasyugan Mire over the area of 5.5?mn ha, in accordance with 15 types of bog sites. Peat deposit structure features are given for different bog types.     

Gastropod communities, vegetation dynamics and landscape changes along an old-field succession in Provence, France

Studies about the relationships between land snail communities and landscape are scarce. The abandonment of many cultivated lands in Provence since the end of the last century gives us the opportunity of an analysis of the organisation pattern of gastropod communities in relation to the recent history and the present day structure of a Mediterranean landscape. The dynamics of a 40 ha landscape, mapped on a raster mode, was studied using cadaster data for seven periods between 1890 and 1990. These data were computed using MCA and PCA. Both floristic and malacological relevés were made at a scale of one grid cell. At the stand level, the patterns of gastropod communities are strongly correlated with the vegetation structure and composition. At the landscape level, the analysis of gastropod communities permits a very good perception of the present day landscape structure, as well as insight into the recent landscape history. However, even if the fits obtained are good, they should be improved in order to take into account scale dependences of snail communities.     

Sustainable landscape use and aesthetic perception–preliminary reflections on future landscape aesthetics

In this paper, a conceptual framework is described for a better understanding of future landscapes as aesthetical objects. The paper is divided in four parts. In the first part, the poor aesthetic reality of today’s landscapes is described and the consequences for aesthetic perception are explained. In the second part, a more sustainable use of landscape is discussed as developmental necessity for the next decades, and some aesthetic aspects of such a development are examined. In the third part, human aesthetic perception is described as a basic cognition process, differentiating between four major levels of knowledge or of sense (perception, expression, symptomatic information, and symbolic meaning). In the last part, all aspects of the first three parts are used to determine basic aesthetic categories of future landscapes. As the most relevant aesthetic categories are identified: the beautiful, the (new) sublime, the interesting, and the plain. Finally an attempt is made to derive from these categories the most important aesthetic prototypes of tomorrow’s landscape.     

Perception of naturalness in landscape and its relationship to vegetation structure

The perceived naturalness of 71 landscapes depicting a range of structural vegetation forms and various levels and kinds of structural alteration was judged by 81 subjects of varying age and academic background. The subject's judgements of naturalness were analysed in relation to the dimensions of Specht's classification of vegetation structure and the kind and extent of structural change. Judgements of naturalness fell in the upper half of the possible range, but varied continuously between the limits, indicating that absence of human intervention is not the only basis for naturalness judgements. Within-scene variance decreased with perceived naturalness indicating less consensus in low-naturalness scenes among the subjects. This may be caused by the subjects switching the basis on which judgements are made about conflicting elements common in these scenes. The subjects' judgements of naturalness were related to ecological naturalness but not equivalent. Tall and dense vegetation was judged more natural than low, open vegetation. The subjects could detect structural changes in all vegetation, but were less discriminating as height increased: they were more sensitive to changes in open vegetation than in dense vegetation. Scrub vegetation was seen as less natural than others, and the subjects rated all structural changes in it equally unnatural. This may relate to congnitive dimensions of involvement with the scene and implications of human scale. Agents of structural change were seen as unnatural (e.g. grazing, dereliction and weed invasion) but fire was not. The implications of differences in perceived and ecological naturalness for landscape planning and design are discussed.     

The Riverside and Berwyn experience: Contrasts in landscape structure, perceptions of the urban landscape, and their effects on people

Humans not only structure the landscape through their activities, but their perceptions of nature are affected by the spatial and temporal arrangements (structure) in the landscape. Our understanding of these interactions, however, is limited. We explored the relationship between landscape structure and peoples’ perceptions of nature in the Chicago, IL, USA, suburbs of Riverside and Berwyn because they offer contrasting paradigms of an urban landscape. Designed in the 1800s by Frederick Law Olmsted, Riverside has several unique design elements (curvilinear streets, ample setbacks, parkways of variable width with mowed grass and naturalistic groupings of trees) that define the structure and composition of this landscape. The urban forest was the keystone of Olmsted's desire to create a harmonious community characterized by “refined sylvan beauty”. In contrast, the adjacent community of Berwyn has right-angled streets with small lots and narrow setbacks for houses. Differences in landscape structure between the two communities produced differences in the diversity, size, and composition of woody vegetation. As measured by patch-size distribution, Riverside had greater diversity in landscape structure than Berwyn, and in turn, Riverside had greater diversity in the composition and size of the woody vegetation compared to Berwyn. Riverside tended toward a “natural” appearance with vegetation, while yards in Berwyn tended to be trimmed and edged. Significant differences between the mean ratings of Riverside and Berwyn respondents were found for six of seven community attribute categories. Riverside participants reported receiving greater benefit from the visual and nature-related features of the urban forest than did Berwyn respondents. Berwyn residents ranked social atmosphere for the community and locomotion (wayfinding) highest among the seven community attribute categories. Despite differences between the two communities, residents valued the green residential environment provided by vegetation. However, the more diverse urban landscape as measured by built structures, woody vegetation, and lot size and shape proved to be more satisfying to the residents of these two communities. The design concepts developed and implemented by Olmsted more than century ago in Riverside are still relevant to city planners striving to develop living environments that are satisfying to urban and suburban residents.     

不同绿量的园林绿地对温湿度变化影响的研究

选择北京紫竹院公园4块不同绿量的乔灌草型绿地为研究对象，进行了连续3天的测试，通过测定分析，得出了不同绿量的园林绿地水平温度、垂直温度、水平湿度和垂直湿度的变化规律。在一定范围内的乔灌草绿量比下，绿地中乔灌的绿量越大，对温湿度的改善作用越大，降温增湿效果明显，具有较好的生态效益。并探讨了绿量及乔灌草绿量比对环境温、湿度的改善作用。     

Recolonisation of powerline corridor vegetation by small mammals: Timing and the influence of vegetation management

Powerline corridors through forested ecosystems have been criticised due their potential to fragment the landscape and facilitate the intrusion of undesirable species into natural areas. This study investigates the effects of vegetation management (slashing), on: (1) timing of small mammal recolonisation; (2) vegetation characteristics that drive small mammal responses; and (3) the point where corridor resources are sufficient to provide functional habitat for native species. Small mammal trapping was undertaken within Bunyip State Park, Australia, across three sites, once a month from January 2001 to May 2002 and every 2 months thereafter until January 2004. Changes in vegetation around each trap station were assessed annually in the forest and bi-annually in the corridor. Principal components analysis on the vegetation structural complexity values produced factors for use in species abundance models. Native small mammal species recolonised the corridor 1.5–3.5 years after management and the corridor supported a breeding population of small mammals around 2.5 years post-management. Males however, generally recolonised the corridor first, resulting in a sex-biased population in these areas. Species corridor habitat models for five native and one introduced species suggested cover and shelter were more important in determining corridor use than plant species per se. Powerline corridors have the potential to create a mixture of different successional stages, enhancing habitat availability for many species. However, the intensity of current management needs to be reduced and an integrated approach to management needs to be undertaken if powerline corridors are to continuously provide habitat for native small mammal species.     

Perceptions and social valuations of landscape. Objectives and methodology for citizen participation in landscape policies

Since the approval of the European Landscape Convention, social perception has been accepted as one of landscape’s defining components and, therefore, any strategy for its planning, protection or management has to be in possession of knowledge produced by citizen participation procedures. The Convention did not formally state what these procedures are and no methodology has been agreed upon for guaranteeing their inclusion in landscape analysis and praxis. This article puts forward a methodological proposal to this end that has been designed, tested and put into practice in the compiling of the Landscape Catalogue of the Province of Seville (Andalusia, Spain). Arguments put forward to support the methodological choices made are evaluated with the aim that this proposal might be of use for other initiatives to create a theoretical and practical corpus for social participation in landscape policies.     

Landscape characteristic aesthetic structure: Construction of urban landscape characteristic time-spatial pattern based on aesthetic subjects☆

The paper presents means and models of city-landscape characteristic structure construction on the aspect of landscape aesthetics subjects, which is called the landscape characteristic aesthetic structure and in short as LCAS. In this paper, the steps of LCAS research are as follows:Describes the concepts of the landscape characteristic aesthetic structure (LCAS), and expounds the LCAS properties: systematic quality, temporal and spatial quality, and virtual existence.Learns from typology research methods, discusses the elements and types needed in a landscape characteristic aesthetic system, and constructs research method for LCAS pattern. As for the temporal dimension, the dynamic evolution and interaction expressed in LCAS between the “tradition” and “modernity” landscapes conflict. As for the spatial dimension, this paper explores the LCAS patterns in macroscopic scope of city group, the middle scope of single cities and the microcosmic scope of urban spaces with questionnaires and examples research.Uses pattern language to express different LCAS types in the temporal and spatial system.We develop the patterns of various LCAS types with graphical patterned representation, as well as construct the LCAS research method and theory which is based on the general people's aesthetic standards and sensibilities to build city characteristics and urban landscapes as a guidance.     

The influence of forest management on landscape structure in the cool-temperate forest region of central Japan

Comprehension of historical changes in landscape and forest management will provide valuable insights into current ecosystems and biodiversity and will support future management decisions and conservation strategies. This study clarified changes in the forest landscape of the cool-temperate forest region of central Japan from 1947 to 1997. We used a geographic information system to reconstruct past forest landscapes at four times (1947, 1962, 1975, and 1997) based on interpretation of aerial photographs and landscape metrics calculated using the FRAGSTATS software for spatial pattern analysis. Our results showed that secondary forests, the dominant land use in 1947, decreased greatly in area and became more fragmented, whereas coniferous plantations, which occupied approximately 20% of the total land area in 1947, became the dominant land use (almost 40% of the total land) by 1997. The young coniferous plantations have been established at increasing elevations over time and were mainly created by conversion of secondary forest until 1975. The number of young coniferous plantations and their patch spacing depended on the type of forest management. In the study area, landscape structure changed in response to changes in management of national forests, especially the expansion of afforestation in the 1950s and 1960s and changes in harvesting systems.     

建筑设计的景观共生——以建筑设计的实例分析建筑学与景观建筑学的关系

本文主要探讨建筑学与景观建筑学的关系,以建筑设计为基准点,分析了景观建筑学的概念和手法引入,对建筑设计的影响,使建筑呈现了丰富的景观,实现了建筑设计的景观共生。     

Landscape Dynamics and the Management of Change

Change in economy and society is directly reflected in the character of landscapes, both in terms of their form and function and the landscape planning and management challenges which they present. The phenomenon of landscape dynamics within post-industrial society is considered and the development of a connection between the drivers of landscape change and the management response is sought. Two key drivers of landscape change are proposed - 'obsolescence' and 'dysfunction' - and these in turn are related to a management matrix bounded by axes of condition and character of landscape. It is suggested that the definition of these relationships helps to substantiate and more clearly define the tasks of landscape planning, design and management in the United Kingdom.     

公路区域生态破坏及植被恢复技术应用与研究进展

综合国内外公路环境保护的研究现状,就公路建设对生态环境破坏的机理、表现形式以及路域环境恢复与重建的植物修复技术进行探讨,提出了公路建设、营运与环境保护相互协调的重要意义和措施.     

四川省北川新城区滨河景观特征评析与优化

2008年5月12日汶川大地震后,经过为期约2年的规划重建工作,北川新城永昌河景观带正式建成并投入使用。本文通过对北川新城永昌河景观带使用者满意程度的调研与分析,从使用者的角度出发,探究其在景观营造、生态环境、文化传承以及管理维护等方面的优点与不足,对建成后景观带如何提高使用者满意程度进行分析与总结,提出可行性建议。     

An evaluation of VEGETATION-1 imagery for broad-scale landscape mapping of Russia: effects of resolution on landscape pattern

The problem of efficient use of multi-scale data for land-cover and landscape mapping has already attracted considerable attention in landscape ecology and some other disciplines. Over the last few decades, however, with the development of satellite remote sensing techniques, the questions of efficient planetary and macro-regional ecological mapping and modeling and integration of multi-scale data have become especially pertinent. The purpose of this study is to test the suitability of the coarse-resolution VEGETATION/SPOT imagery for landscape mapping. Effects of changing spatial resolution on land-cover proportion estimates were examined in 16 different landscapes using spatially degraded high-resolution imagery from the Russian satellite, RESURS-F. Comparison of simulated coarse-resolution data and original images and ancillary data for sites with different landscape patterns, showed strong scale dependence of the landscape characteristics (land-cover proportion, fragmentation, patchiness) in different case study areas, such as sub-boreal forest, sub-urban areas, and an agricultural region in the steppe zone.