Influence of humidity on creep response of sandwich beam with a viscoelastic soft core

Polymer foam cored sandwich beams are widely used in load-bearing components due to their high strength to weight ratio. To improve the reliability in using sandwich beams, it is essential to understand their long-term creep response in terms of variation of stresses and deformations with time under external mechanical and environmental stimuli. This paper presents an analytical model for investigating the creep response of sandwich beams made with a viscoelastic soft core, including the effect of the variable ambient humidity under the sustained load and its influence on the creep behavior. The model is based on a high-order viscoelastic structural modeling. The soft core is modeled as a viscoelastic material using differential-type constitutive relations that are based on the linear Boltzman’s principle of superposition and accounting for the deformability of the core in shear and through its thickness. Several numerical examples are presented in order to show the capability of the model and to investigate the effect of moisture on the creep behavior of sandwich beams. Finite element simulations of the creep response of sandwich beams are also performed using ABAQUS software to validate the proposed theoretical model. The results show the concentrations of shear and transverse normal stresses near the edges and their variation in time and with the change of humidity.     

Improved prediction model for time-dependent deformations of concrete: Part 4—Temperature effects

This Part presents a refinement of the BP model for the effects of temperature on the basic creep and drying creep of concrete. The temperature effect on basic creep is introduced through two different activation energies, one for the effect of temperature increase on the rate of hydration, which causes a decrease of creep, and one for the effect of temperature increase on the rate of creep, which causes an increase of creep. The dichotomy of these two opposing temperature influences is an essential feature, required for good agreement with test data. The greatest error in basic creep is again caused by the prediction of the material parameters from concrete composition and strength. This error can be largely eliminated by conducting limited short-time basic creep tests at different temperatures. Comparisons with 13 different data sets from the literature show a satisfactory agreement, better than that achieved with previous models, while at the same time the scope of the present model is broader. The effect of temperature on the creep of drying specimens is rather different because heating causes a moisture loss from unsealed specimens. The paper presents prediction formulae which modify those for drying creep at room temperature on the basis of the activation energy concept and take into account the effect of heating on the moisture loss. Comparisons with the limited test data that exist show satisfactory agreement. No additional material parameters depending on concrete composition and strength are introduced for drying creep.     

Analysis of creep and modulus loss of the wood cell wall

This paper proposes a nonlinear constitutive model for the wood cell wall based on the nonequilibrium thermodynamics. The wood cell wall is modeled as a long fiber-reinforced composite with cellulose microfibril enclosed by hemicellulose and lignin. An internal variable is introduced into the Helmholtz free energy of the cell wall system, to describe the modulus loss of hemicellulose due to moisture absorption. The viscoelastic behavior of the wood cell wall changes with its moisture content, which leads to different creep evolutions even under the same loading level. To account for this phenomenon, another internal variable is introduced to depict the creep behavior of the wood cell wall, which is correlated with the irreversible energy dissipation processes such as stick–slip mechanism in the wood cell wall. Based on five elastic coefficients of transverse isotropy predicted by the present model, the creep behaviors of the wood cell wall with different microfibril angles are theoretically analyzed and show good agreements with experiment results.     

Moisture-temperature equivalency in creep analysis of a heterogeneous-matrix carbon fibre/epoxy composite

The objective of this study was to investigate the creep sensitivity of a heterogeneous-matrix carbon fibre composite as related to time, temperature and moisture. An interlaminar-toughened composite (Toray T800H/3900-2) was used as a model system for creep analysis. Constant-loading tensile creep experiments were performed on [±45]_2s laminate specimens at several isothermal temperatures for two moisture levels: dry and wet (0.9% moisture content). Long-term predictions of creep of the toughened composite could be made using the analytical results from this study. The effect of absorbed moisture in the laminate on creep compliance was shown to be quantitatively equivalent to an increase in temperature, and the temperature-moisture equivalency was established with the aid of a polymer-diluent miscibility theory.     

Progress in the analysis of creep in wood during concurrent moisture changes

In analysing wood creep during moisture changes, various adjustments can be made to the data, including corrections for density and for dimensional changes. Provided that the variation of elastic compliance with moisture content is known, the elastic compliance can be separated from the total compliance to give a “reduced” creep compliance. Elastic compliance data can be formed into a graphical chart based on moisture content and the compliance at a single known moisture content. Good correlations have been obtained between reduced creep compliances for various modes of moisture change and the unloaded axial movement coefficientsβ _L. Ifβ _L could be considered as a measure of a number of internal “events”, related to hydrogen bonding, and taking place during moisture changes; then the number of these events might also be related to moisture-induced creep changes.     

Study on long-term stability of Qinghai–Tibet Railway embankment

In order to predict long-term stability of Qinghai–Tibet Railway (QTR) embankment, a moisture, heat and creep couple model is deduced on the basis of principal theories of numerical heat transfer, physics of frozen soil, frozen soil mechanics and rheology of frozen soil. And in this model, the moisture and temperature field are interacted with each other, the parameters of frozen soil change with soil temperature variation and an in-situ creep equation of frozen soil is also included. Meanwhile, a finite element program is written. Then, the long-term stability of the embankment is studied in detail. Through comparing with observation data, it is found that the proposed analytical model is correct and reasonable, thus it can well describe and predict the long-term stability problem of the QTR embankment. Additionally, it is a reference to analyze the deformation problems of other buildings in permafrost regions.     

早龄期混凝土湿度应力计算与开裂风险评估

该文以现浇混凝土圆柱为例,建立了自收缩与干燥收缩统一的早龄期混凝土收缩应力解析计算方法,并采用松弛系数法对混凝土徐变的影响作了修正,同时对混凝土早期开裂风险进行了分析。应用所建模型,对不同环境湿度条件、不同尺寸混凝土圆柱的湿度应力进行了计算与分析。结果表明:混凝土内部湿度随时间的变化幅度是控制湿度应力的主要因素,混凝土内部湿度与环境湿度差值越小,干缩应力越小;徐变参数的取值对混凝土湿度应力的计算影响较大;构件尺寸对干缩应力也有一定的影响,柱半径越大,相同条件下其外表面拉应力越大,越容易开裂。     

Experimental study of creep of hardened Portland cement paste at variable water content

Tests of creep under axial load and torque have been made using tubular specimens of extremely small wall thickness (0.7 mm) in order to achieve sufficiently rapid moisture exchange with the environment. The changes of relative humidity and temperature in a program-controlled environmental chamber have been gradual, so as to minimize the differences in pore humidity throughout the specimen wall and the accompanying residual stresses and microcracking. A number of different humidity and temperature histories, including the drying before and during the creep test, and the humidity changes during the creep test and during the recovery, have been tested. The measurements have revealed a decline of the slope of creep curve in log-time after a sufficiently long drying period; acceleration of creep as well as recovery by both drying and wetting; a smaller and more delayed acceleration at lower humidities; a delay of this acceleration with respect to the weight loss; a similarity of these effects in axial and torsional creep; a higher recovery as well as creep at higher humidities when moisture equilibrium has been approached before loading; a higher creep acceleration by temperature increases or decreases when the humidity is below saturation, but a smaller acceleration at nearly dry state; and other effects.     

Rheological parameters and characteristics of bamboo in compression perpendicular to grain under hot-pressing process

Bamboo with high specific strength is a renewable biomaterial. Studying the rheological properties of bamboo is helpful to improve the performance and quality of bamboo products. In this paper, four-element Burgers model was applied to describe the creep behavior of moso bamboo (Phyllostachs pubescens) in compression perpendicular to grain under hot-pressing process. The relationship between creep components and experimental factors (temperature, moisture content and stress level) was investigated. More importantly, four rheological parameters in Burgers model were also determined at different temperatures, moisture contents and stress levels. And the effect of experimental factors on rheological parameters was quantitatively explored. The results showed that, when compressive stress was below the yield limit, the amount of three components of creep was proportional to experimental factors, but the increase in temperature and moisture content could reduce the proportion of elastic deformation, and improve the proportion of viscoelastic deformation and viscous deformation. Besides, rheological parameters were insensitive to stress level when temperature and moisture content remained unchanged. But they were greatly affected by temperature and moisture content, presenting a linear inverse proportion to them.

     

Prediction of the Residual Structural Integrity of a Polymer Matrix Composite Construction Element

Polymers are time-dependent materials. Polymer matrix compositesbehave as viscoelastic-viscoplastic anisotropic continua. Theirthermomechanical characteristics are not only time-dependent, but arestrongly influenced by the variations of the environmental conditions(temperature, moisture diffusion, radiation, etc.). This concerns notonly the stiffness but also the strength characteristics, related to thedamage development. Due to the composite nature, the number of potentialdamage sources is high and the damage development has to take intoaccount all the interactions between simple mechanical loading modes,with or without, changing environmental conditions. Following anon-linear viscoelastic-viscoplastic analysis, based on the Schaperyequations and a Zapas–Crissman functional, the stiffness degradation isobtained based on short-term creep and creep-recovery measurements atdifferent stress levels and different temperatures.A damagecomponent is added to the viscoelastic-viscoplastic model in order toaccount for damage development and associated strength degradation.Results obtained in the transverse direction of an unidirectionalgraphite-epoxy composite are presented. The extension to completelaminates with different stacking sequences is discussed. An assumptionon the interlaminar behaviour must be introduced in order to take intoaccount the important damage source not considered in classical laminatetheories.     

A nonlocal continuum damage mechanics approach to simulation of creep fracture in ice sheets

We present a Lagrangian finite element formulation aimed at modeling creep fracture in ice-sheets using nonlocal continuum damage mechanics. The proposed formulation is based on a thermo-viscoelastic constitutive model and a creep damage model for polycrystalline ice with different behavior in tension and compression. In this paper, mainly, we detail the nonlocal numerical implementation of the constitutive damage model into commercial finite element codes (e.g. Abaqus), wherein a procedure to handle the abrupt failure (rupture) of ice under tension is proposed. Then, we present numerical examples of creep fracture under four-point bending, uniaxial tension, and biaxial tension in order to illustrate the viability of the current approach. Finally, we present simulations of creep crack propagation in idealized rectangular ice slabs so as to estimate calving rates at low deformation rates. The examples presented demonstrate the mesh size and mesh directionality independence of the proposed nonlocal implementation.     

Composite modelling of masonry deformation

Based on the measured properties of individual bricks, blocks and mortar specimens, composite model expressions are presented for elasticity, creep and moisture movement of masonry in two directions. The model demonstrates the influence of creep in horizontal moisture movement, and allows for anisotropy of brick or block. Simulation of the role of moisture diffusion in masonry is a requirement for statisfactory predictions by the model, this being achieved by testing specimens having the same volume/exposed surface area ratio as the masonry component phases. Experimental verification is shown for clay brickwork walls and piers, and for calcium silicate walls.     

基于水化程度的早龄期混凝土拉伸徐变模型研究

研究了早龄期混凝土的拉伸徐变特性,首先对基于水化程度的开尔文模型进行改进,并建立拉伸徐变的增量计算方法;然后采用门式加载设备对早龄期混凝土的直接拉伸强度、拉伸弹性模量以及拉伸徐变进行试验研究,通过热重分析得到水泥浆体的水化程度;最后利用1 d 龄期的徐变试验结果确定改进模型的计算参数,并对其他龄期拉伸应变进行验算。研究结果表明,早龄阶段混凝土的水化程度发展较快,拉伸徐变对早龄混凝土的加载龄期非常敏感,加载龄期越早,混凝土的徐变度越大;基于水化程度包含3 个开尔文单元的徐变模型可以较好地描述早龄期混凝土拉伸徐变特征。     

New achievements in visco-elastoplastic constitutive model and temperature sensitivity of glasphalt

This paper focuses on the experimental investigation on temperature sensitivity and visco-elastoplastic behaviour of glasphalt. Classic Burgers creep model could only describe the viscoelastic behaviour of materials before the third creep-phase, so a viscoplastic string is added in series with classic Burgers model in order to predict the visco-elastoplastic behaviour of glasphalt. In this research, the effects of loading stress and temperature on creep behaviour of glasphalt under dynamic loading are investigated. In addition, some methods were used to solve model parameters and then predictions from proposed model were compared with experimental results. It was shown that creep testing curves coincided well with theoretic curves, validating that modified Burgers model can completely characterise creep behaviour of glasphalt. Besides, temperature sensitivity of glasphalt was evaluated by using indirect tensile stiffness modulus test, and stiffness modulus behaviour model of glasphalt was presented based on the experimental results and numerical analysis.     

徐变对水泥路面板湿度翘曲及应力影响研究

水泥混凝土路面板的温湿度翘曲和交通荷载的耦合作用是其发生疲劳破坏的主要原因之一。湿度梯度及湿度翘曲在路面板中的存在时间较为持续长久,不可避免地会受到混凝土徐变的影响。该文进行了干燥和密闭状态下水泥混凝土梁的弯曲徐变试验,提出弯曲徐变度和徐变系数的计算方法,并将上述徐变参数植入有限元程序中模拟分析徐变对结合式和分离式混凝土路面板翘曲变形和应力发展影响。结果表明:干燥状态下的弯曲徐变是密闭状态下徐变的1.67倍;徐变能够降低翘曲变形、翘曲应力及与荷载耦合情况下的总应力;徐变对结合式路面板的翘曲变形和应力发展影响较大,徐变降低了36%的湿度翘曲变形和45%的翘曲应力;在板角交通荷载的耦合作用下,徐变可使结合式路面板的总应力降低34%。因此徐变是合理分析混凝土路面板的翘曲变形和应力发展不可忽略的因素。     

Simulation of shrinkage distress and creep relief in concrete repair

This paper addresses the problem of stress buildup in the repair layer of a concrete patch repair system resulting from moisture diffusion. As moisture evaporates from the repair layer into the surrounding ambience of known relative humidity, the hardened concrete substrate restrains free shrinkage movement of the repair layer. As a consequence, primary tensile stresses are set up in the repair layer together with shear and peeling stresses at the interface of the repair layer-concrete substrate. The repair layer under non-uniformly increasing tensile shrinkage stresses undergoes restrained creep in tension, which results in the development of secondary stresses in the system. The secondary stresses due to restrained creep being of opposite sign to that of restrained shrinkage serve to relieve the primary shrinkage stress field and the net or combined stress buildup as a result is reduced.A finite element based computer program used for computing the time dependent moisture loss profile in the repair system is interfaced with a finite element based 2-D stress analysis program for computing the time dependent restrained shrinkage and creep stresses.Variation of normal and shear stresses across depth and width at critical locations in the patch repair and temporal variation of these stresses are presented. Influence of ultimate free shrinkage strain ε_sh^∞ and the buildup of tensile stresses versus the evolution of tensile strength capacity f′_t of the repair is highlighted. Also, possible zones of failure are identified in the repair layer and at the interface of the patch repair system.     

Characterization of viscoelastic properties of molybdenum disulphide filled polyamide by indentation

In this paper, the creep behavior of molybdenum disulphide (MoS₂) filled polyamide 66 composite was investigated through sharp indentation at room temperature. Two types of indentation creep test, the 3-step indentation test, and the 5-step indentation test were considered in order to explore whether the measured creep response is mainly viscoelastic or includes a significant contribution from the plastic deformation developed during the loading phase. The experimental indentation creep data were analyzed within an analytical framework based on the hereditary integral operator for the ramp creep and a viscoelastic–plastic (VEP) model in order to determine the indentation creep compliance function including the short- and long-time modulus. The equivalent shear modulus calculated from the creep compliance function was compared to the indentation plane strain modulus derived from the initial slope of the unloading curve in order to investigate the validity of the Oliver and Pharr method.     

Constitutive equations for orthotropic nonlinear viscoelastic behaviour using a generalized Maxwell model Application to wood material

This paper presents a nonlinear viscoelastic orthotropic constitutive equation applied to wood material. The proposed model takes into account mechanical and mechanosorptive creep via a 3D stress ratio and moisture change rate for a cylindrical orthotropic material. Orthotropic frame is based on the grain direction (L), radial (R) and hoop (T) directions, which are natural wood directions. Particular attention is taken to ensure the model to fulfill the necessary dissipation conditions. It is based on a rheological generalized Maxwell model with two elements in parallel in addition with a single linear spring taking into account the long term response. The proposed model is implemented in the finite element code ABAQUS/Standard^® via a user subroutine UMAT and simple example is shown to demonstrate the capability of the proposed model. Future works would deal with damage and fracture prediction for wooden structures submitted to climate variations and mechanical loading.     

Analysis of time-dependent deformation of a CFRP mirror under hot and humid conditions

The long-term micro-dimensional stability of a carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) mirror was investigated in terms of creep deformation, moisture swelling and self-shrinkage. A 4-point bending creep test was carried out using specimens made from pitch-based high-modulus CFRP laminates to obtain a creep constant based on linear viscoelasticity, and we then investigated the weight change and geometrical change during a moisture absorption test using a CFRP specimen. The anisotropic diffusivities and coefficients of moisture expansion (CMEs) in CFRP laminates were obtained by fitting analytical data into the experimental data. Finally, the shrinkage behavior caused by physical aging of the polymeric material was examined using a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensor embedded in the neat resin specimen. Applying these results, we analyzed the geometrical changes in a CFRP mirror that resulted from time-dependent deformation by the mirror’s weight, moisture absorption and physical aging, respectively. We discuss which factor is dominant in the deformation of CFRP mirrors under various conditions.