A new method for processing impact excited continuous-scan laser Doppler vibrometer measurements

A scanning laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) can acquire non-contact vibration measurements from a structure with high spatial detail in an automated manner; one only need redirect the laser via computer-controlled mirrors to acquire measurements at additional points. However, since most LDV systems are only capable of measuring one point at a time, conventional scanning vibrometry cannot be effectively employed in some situations, for example when the time record is long at each measurement point or when the structure changes with time. Conventional scanning LDV systems are also difficult to employ with impact excitation because there is considerable variation in the impact location, angle and the character of the impacts, which leads to errors in the mode shapes that are extracted from the measurements. This paper presents a method by which one can determine the mode shapes, natural frequencies and damping ratios of a structure from as little as one response record by sweeping the laser continuously over the vibrating structure as the measurement is acquired. A novel resampling approach is presented that transforms the continuous-scan measurements into pseudo-frequency response functions, so they can be processed using standard identification routines to find the modal parameters of the structure. Specifically, this work employs a standard multi-input–multi-output identification routine and the complex mode indicator function to the continuous-scan laser Doppler vibrometry (CSLDV) measurements. The method makes no assumptions regarding the shape or properties of the surface and only requires that the laser scan periodically and that the structure vibrate freely. The method is demonstrated experimentally on a free–free beam, identifying the first nine mode shapes of the beam at hundreds of points from a few time histories. For this system, this represents a two-order of magnitude reduction in the time needed to acquire measurements with the LDV.     

Applications of continuous tracking SLDV measurement methods to axially symmetric rotating structures using different excitation methods

This paper presents the latest developments of the continuous-scanning laser Doppler vibrometry (C-SLDV) measurement methods applied to rotating axially symmetric structures such as bladed discs. Measurement of vibrations of rotating structures are still difficult to perform. The main reason is due to the limitations of conventional transducers used for capturing the vibrations, these are often unable to measure and/or transfer a good quality signal remotely. The LDV became an ideal candidate to replace/aid such transducers, but only the introduction of two scanning mirrors in front of a laser head produced a step forward in measurements of vibrations of rotating targets; SLDV systems are now widely used both in industry and academic communities.This work shows how a commercial SLDV system can be used for measurement of vibrations of bladed discs under rotating conditions. The features of the scanning head, which was not modified for this study, were exploited up to the limit to achieve the synchronization between the scanner and a rotating target. The simplest tracking technique is performed when a circle-line scan pattern is synchronized with the rotating bladed disc so as to produce the point tracking measurement method. The extension of such a discrete measurement method to a full-field one is made when the laser beam is capable of tracing continuously either a line (LineScan tracking) or an area (AreaScan tracking) over the surface of the rotating structure. The development of tracking C-SLDV measurement techniques is achieved by the use of the traditional excitation methods and the development of a new excitation system, which will bring the excitation and the measurement to be in the same rotating frame of reference. Several experimental results are provided to illustrate the use of such techniques in turbomachinery industries.     

A multi-orientation error separation technique for spindle metrology of miniature ultra-high-speed spindles

This paper presents a multi-orientation error separation technique to remove the artifact form error from the radial measurements to obtain the radial spindle error motions of miniature ultra-high-speed (UHS) spindles. Unlike the existing approaches, the present technique neither relies on high-accuracy fixtures, nor necessitates measurements from specific orientations of the artifact. Rather, the spindle error motions are measured from a set of arbitrary artifact orientations using laser Doppler vibrometry (LDV). The angle of each artifact-setup orientation with respect to the spindle is determined with high precision through reflectivity measurement of the marks made on both the artifact and the spindle using another LDV. Although the presented approach can be applied by using different sensors (e.g., capacitance probes), we demonstrate the approach using LDVs. With the displacement measurement direction fixed, measurements are conducted from both LDVs for multiple orientations of the artifact. Using the unique implementation scheme developed in this paper, data from these orientations are post-processed to compute the artifact form error and further remove it from the radial motion measurements to obtain the synchronous radial spindle error motions. A thorough experimental evaluation is presented to quantify both the repeatability of the measured artifact form errors as well as the bandwidth of error separation for various number of artifact orientations. The spindle error motions measured from both the sphere and stem portions of a custom fabricated sphere-on-stem artifact mounted on a typical miniature UHS spindle, are seen to be similar in shape and within 5 nm in magnitude across the revolution, thus demonstrating the effectiveness of the technique. Using this technique, spindle error motions at ultra-high speeds up to 150 krpm were successfully quantified. Although the implementation scheme is demonstrated for miniature UHS spindles, it is readily applicable for error separation on macro-scale spindles without the need for any high-precision fixtures and precise setting of angles.     

Cantilever spring constant calibration using laser Doppler vibrometry

Uncertainty in cantilever spring constants is a critical issue in atomic force microscopy (AFM) force measurements. Though numerous methods exist for calibrating cantilever spring constants, the accuracy of these methods can be limited by both the physical models themselves as well as uncertainties in their experimental implementation. Here we report the results from two of the most common calibration methods, the thermal tune method and the Sader method. These were implemented on a standard AFM system as well as using laser Doppler vibrometry (LDV). Using LDV eliminates some uncertainties associated with optical lever detection on an AFM. It also offers considerably higher signal to noise deflection measurements. We find that AFM and LDV result in similar uncertainty in the calibrated spring constants, about 5%, using either the thermal tune or Sader methods provided that certain limitations of the methods and instrumentation are observed.     

Experimental Comparison of Load/Unload Slider Dynamics For Two Different Pico-Slider Designs

A comparison of Laser-Doppler vibrometry (LDV) and acoustic emission (AE) data is presented for two different slider designs during load/unload (L/UL). The behavior of the slider is measured for three different vertical load/unload velocities using a transparent glass disk with the slider flying at the bottom surface of the disk. The LDV laser spot can be positioned on the slider alrbearing surface during the complete load/unload process with the help of a so-called “periscope.” A characteristic velocity peak during unloading is observed that is caused by the slider pull-off force.     

Eulerian laser Doppler vibrometry: Online blade damage identification on a multi-blade test rotor

Laser Doppler vibrometry enables the telemetry-free measurement of online turbomachinery blade vibration. Specifically, the Eulerian or fixed reference frame implementation of laser vibrometry provides a practical solution to the condition monitoring of rotating blades. The short data samples that are characteristic of this measurement approach do however negate the use of traditional frequency domain signal processing techniques. It is therefore necessary to employ techniques such as time domain analysis and non-harmonic Fourier analysis to obtain useful information from the blade vibration signatures. The latter analysis technique allows the calculation of phase angle trends which can be used as indicators of blade health deterioration, as has been shown in previous work for a single-blade rotor.This article presents the results from tests conducted on a five-blade axial-flow test rotor at different rotor speeds and measurement positions. With the aid of artificial neural networks, it is demonstrated that the parameters obtained from non-harmonic Fourier analysis and time domain signal processing on Eulerian laser Doppler vibrometry signals can successfully be used to identify and quantify blade damage from among healthy blades. It is also shown that the natural frequencies of individual blades can be approximated from the Eulerian signatures recorded during rotor run-up and run-down.     

A comprehensive technique for measuring the three-dimensional positioning accuracy of a rotating object

A method for measuring the accuracy of rotating objects was studied. Rotating axis errors are significant; such as the spindle error of a machine tool which results in increased surface roughness of machined work pieces. Three capacitance-type displacement sensors were used to measure the position of a rotating master ball. The sensors were mounted at the three orthogonal points on the spindle axis. The measurement data were analysed for rotating spindle accuracy, not only for the average roundness error but also for the spindle volumetric positional error during rotation. This method is simple and economical for industrial field use for regular inspection of spindles using portable equipment. The time taken for measurement and analysis using this method is only about two hours. This method can also measure microscopic amplitudes in 3-D directions of vibrating objects.     

Experimental dynamic characterizations and modelling of disk vibrations for HDDs

Currently, the rotational speed of spindle motors in HDDs (Hard-Disk Drives) are increasing to improve high data throughput and decrease rotational latency for ultra-high data transfer rates. However, the disk platters are excited to vibrate at their natural frequencies due to higher air-flow excitation as well as eccentricities and imbalances in the disk-spindle assembly. These factors contribute directly to TMR (Track Mis-Registration) which limits achievable high recording density essential for future mobile HDDs. In this paper, the natural mode shapes of an annular disk mounted on a spindle motor used in current HDDs are characterized using FEM (Finite Element Methods) analysis and verified with SLDV (Scanning Laser Doppler Vibrometer) measurements. The identified vibration frequencies and amplitudes of the disk ODS (Operating Deflection Shapes) at corresponding disk mode shapes are modelled as repeatable disturbance components for servo compensation in HDDs. Our experimental results show that the SLDV measurements are accurate in capturing static disk mode shapes without the need for intricate air-flow aero-elastic models, and the proposed disk ODS vibration model correlates well with experimental measurements from a LDV.     

Characterisation of a dissipative assembly using structural intensity measurements and energy conservation equation

It is possible to get from complex velocity maps obtained by optical measurements (holographic interferometry, laser doppler vibrometry, etc.) and wavenumber processing, useful quantities to study energy flows in structures such as intensity, power flow, forces, localisation of sources and sinks of energy. In this paper, scanning laser vibrometer measurements on two-plate assembly are used to determine the dissipating power by the joints from the above-mentioned energetic quantities. The average power flow over lines parallel to the junction is computed using the proposed method in order to check a one-dimensional model of power flow distribution along the other dimension. An approximate energy conservation law of flexural vibration which gives good results on beam structures and measurement data are used to determine the dissipation characteristic of joints.     

A novel experimental research on vibration characteristics of the running high-speed motorized spindles

Because of the complicated running condition and many unpredicted factors such as unmodelled dynamics and external disturbances, the fault analysis of the high-speed motorized spindle is proved difficult. In this paper, a novel experimental method is proposed to research the vibration characteristics of the running high-speed motorized spindle. The method consists of four steps. Firstly, the vibration signal measurement and processing system are built according to data collector and signal analysis software, and then, the vibration signal of the spindle extracted from sophisticated experimental environment is studied by using harmonic wavelet transform for its advantages, such as ultra-narrow band, high resolution detection and ability of extracting weak signal. After that, local frequency domain zooming technique of harmonic wavelet packet is employed to study the vibration spectrum of the spindle at eight different rotating speeds. Furthermore, the axis orbit of the rotor is purified successfully, which can serve as verification basis for subsequent on-site fault diagnosis. Finally, a comparative analysis of eight different vibration signals under the same load but different speeds condition is carried out, the spectral components are classified into two types: the repeated ones and the regular ones. The accordance between experimental results and theoretical analysis suggests that the proposed method in this paper is effective.     

基于Lempel-Ziv指标的主轴系统退化

为了检测机床主轴系统在使用过程中状态的变化,提出了一种基于复杂度指标的劣化分析方法。以某磨床空转运行时工件主轴系统产生的振动信号为分析对象,采用复杂度指标对磨床在数月使用过程中工件主轴的状态进行判断。分析结果表明,随着使用时间的增加,工件主轴系统产生的振动信号的复杂度增加。为了验证复杂度指标在劣化分析中的有效性,采用复杂度指标对美国凯斯西储大学公布的劣化轴承数据进行分析,结果表明,该方法在劣化分析中是可行的。     

Demonstration of a laser vorticity probe in turbulent boundary layers

A laser-based probe for the nonintrusive measurement of velocity gradient and vorticity was demonstrated in turbulent boundary layers. Unlike most other optical methods, the current technique provides an estimate of the velocity gradient, without having to first measure velocity at multiple points. The measurement principle is based on the heterodyne of coherent light scattered from two adjacent particles. The beat frequency of the heterodyne is directly proportional to the velocity gradient. The probe is assembled from commercially available, inexpensive optical components. A laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) processor is used to analyze the heterodyne signal. A component of vorticity is obtained by using two appropriately aligned velocity gradient probes. The optical probes developed were used in turbulent boundary layers to measure local, time-frozen velocity gradients partial differential u / partial differential y, partial differential v / partial differential x, and partial differential v / partial differential y, as well as the spanwise vorticity. The measurements were compared to those inferred from LDV measurements in the same facility and to data available in the literature.     

Continuous scanning laser Doppler vibrometry and speckle noise occurrence

Continous scanning laser Doppler vibrometry (CSLDV) is a type of “spatial field” non-contact technique for measuring structural vibrations by employing a laser Doppler vibrometer whose laser beam is moving continuously on the structure surface. When an LDV is scanned continuously along an arbitrarily line, the LDV output is an amplitude-modulated sine wave according to the structure operational deflection shape. Smooth mode shapes, which can be defined by polynomial functions across the scanned area, may be recovered as a set of polynomial coefficients derived from the LDV output analysed in the frequency domain, which spectrum comprises sidebands centred on the excitation frequency and spaced at multiples of the scan frequency(ies).This paper concentrates its attention to the influence of the speckle noise on the measured data quality, the speckle being an unavoidable phenomenon occurring when a coherent light beam is scattered back from an optically rough surface.     

Cutting tool condition monitoring by analyzing surface roughness,work piece vibration and volume of metal removed for AISI 1040 steel in boring

The vibration is one of the intensive problems in boring process. Machining and tool wear are affected more by vibration of tool due to length of boring bar. The present work is to estimate the effect of cutting parameters on work piece vibration, roughness on machined surface and volume of metal removed in boring of steel (AISI1040). A laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) was used for online data acquisition and a high-speed FFT analyzer used to process the AOE signals for work piece vibration. A design of experiments was prepared with eight experiments with two levels of cutting parameters such as spindle rotational speed, feed rate and tool nose radius. Taguchi method has been used to optimize the cutting parameters and a multiple regression analysis is done to obtain the empirical relation of Tool life with roughness of machined surface, volume of metal removed and amplitude of work piece vibrations.     

Anti-Personnel Land Mine Detection and Discrimination Using Acoustic Data

An acoustic-based land mine detection system was field-tested by the University of Mississippi with promising results. This system uses a Laser Doppler Vibrometer (LDV) to measure the velocity of the vibration at the surface of the soil induced by acoustic energy in various frequency bands. In this paper, automated methods for detecting and discriminating Anti-Personnel (AP) mines from clutter objects are presented. Pre-processing methods rely on nonlinear filters realized as Choquet integrals. These filters are robust to the non-Gaussian, impulse type noise in this type of data. Detection follows pre-processing and relies on adaptive thresholding over each frequency band and three-dimensional (3D) connected component analysis. Features are extracted from the 2D frequency slices of the 3D connected components. The features are adaptively aggregated over frequency and used for discriminant analysis. Experiments are performed using anti-personnel mines, clutter objects, and blank areas (background samples with no mines or clutter objects). The algorithm detects 92% of the mines for a wide range of parameters. For some threshold values, 100% of the mines are detected and 92% of the mines are classified as mines with no false alarms.     

Point-velocity methods for flow-rate measurements in asymmetric pipe flow

Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) is characterized by its ability to determine local fluid velocities with high accuracy. Therefore, LDV may also be used for precise flow-rate measurements of turbulent flow in circular ducts. The uncertainty of the measurement depends mainly on the asymmetry of the axial velocity distribution and on the point-velocity method chosen to estimate the flow-rate. LDV-measurements in conjunction with velocity-area methods have been performed under different asymmetric flow conditions yielding errors in the range of one per cent. The experimental data have been transformed into analytical flow profiles, in order to investigate combinations of single-point measurements. As a result, a new multi-point method with variable centre-point factor is introduced, that reduces both the effort and uncertainty in the measurement.     

永磁同步型磨削电主轴偏心振动分析及实验*

电主轴是将旋转主轴与电机转子集成为一体的主轴单元,结构复杂,由于加工或装配误差等原因,电主轴转子会存在着一定的偏心量,为探求由于电主轴偏心所导致的转子振动特性,建立了电主轴转子偏心模型,采用Maxwell应力张量法计算了偏心造成的不平衡磁拉力(UMP),将UMP解析式代入Jeffcott转子模型,得到了转子偏心振动方程。以某磨床的永磁同步电主轴为研究对象,利用有限元方法分析了UMP,发现作用于转子的UMP始终指向气隙最小的方向,研究了不同转速下转子在质量偏心离心力和UMP作用下的振动响应。研究结果表明,电主轴在低速运行时,UMP为转子振动的主要来源;随着转速的增加,质量偏心离心力对转子振动的影响更加明显,而UMP大小保持不变,其频率随转速增加而增大,对转子振动的作用随之减弱。对某机床厂所研发永磁同步型磨削电主轴在试运行时产生的振动问题进行了实验,对主轴振动频谱分析后判断实验电主轴存在静态偏心,测得主轴轴心轨迹对前述分析进行了验证。     

码盘偏心对扭振测试影响的研究

扭振测试对旋转机械的故障诊断具有十分重要的意义,当测速码盘存在偏心时,会给扭振测试带来很大的误差。在轴实际存在扭振的情况下,由理论推导,得到在码盘偏心时测量转速与轴实际转速之间的关系式,从而得到测量扭振角速度,分析出测量扭振的组成成分并得到了其数学表达式。讨论影响扭转各成分幅值大小的因素,偏心比越大,测量扭振的误差越大;偏心比相同时,转速越高,扭振角速度的误差也越大;任一阶测量扭振均受到分布在其两边的轴实际扭振的所有阶次的影响,在幅值相同情况下,距离越远的阶次影响越小。仿真和试验验证了理论推导的正确性,仿真中的最大误差为2.83%,试验中的最大误差为5.6%。     

Experimental and computational studies on flow behavior around counter rotating blades in a double-spindle deck

Experimental and computational studies were performed to determine the effects of different blade designs on a flow pattern inside a double-spindle counter rotating mower deck. In the experimental study, two different blade models were tested by measuring air velocities using a forward-scatter LDV system. The velocity measurements were taken at several different azimuth and axial sections inside the deck. The measured velocity distributions clarified the air flow pattern caused by the rotating blades and demonstrated the effects of deck and blade designs. A high-speed video camera and a sound level meter were used for flow visualization and noise level measurement. In the computational works, two-dimensional blade shapes at several arbitrary radial sections have been selected for flow computations around the blade model. For three-dimensional computation applied a non-inertia coordinate system, a flow field around the entire three-dimensional blade shape is used to evaluate flow patterns in order to take radial flow interactions into account. The computational results were compared with the experimental results.