A survey of routing attacks in mobile ad hoc networks

Recently, mobile ad hoc networks became a hot research topic among researchers due to their flexibility and independence of network infrastructures, such as base stations. Due to unique characteristics, such as dynamic network topology, limited bandwidth, and limited battery power, routing in a MANET is a particularly challenging task compared to a conventional network. Early work in MANET research has mainly focused on developing an efficient routing mechanism in such a highly dynamic and resource-constrained network. At present, several efficient routing protocols have been proposed for MANET. Most of these protocols assume a trusted and cooperative environment. However, in the presence of malicious nodes, the networks are vulnerable to various kinds of attacks. In MANET, routing attacks are particularly serious. In this article, we investigate the state-of-the-art of security issues in MANET. In particular, we examine routing attacks, such as link spoofing and colluding misrelay attacks, as well as countermeasures against such attacks in existing MANET protocols.     

Load balanced routing protocols for ad hoc mobile wireless networks - [Topics in ad hoc and sensor networks]

Mobile ad hoc networks are collections of mobile nodes that can dynamically form temporary networks without the need for pre-existing network infrastructure or centralized administration. These nodes can be arbitrarily located and can move freely at any given time. Hence, the network topology can change rapidly and unpredictably. Because wireless link capacities are usually limited, congestion is possible in MANETs. Hence, balancing the load in a MANET is important since nodes with high loads will deplete their batteries quickly, thereby increasing the probability of disconnecting or partitioning the network. This article discusses the various load metrics and summarizes the principles behind several existing load balanced ad hoc routing protocols. Finally, a qualitative comparison of the various load metrics and load balanced routing protocols is presented.     

A location-based routing method for mobile ad hoc networks

Using location information to help routing is often proposed as a means to achieve scalability in large mobile ad hoc networks. However, location-based routing is difficult when there are holes in the network topology and nodes are mobile or frequently disconnected to save battery. Terminode routing, presented here, addresses these issues. It uses a combination of location-based routing (terminode remote routing, TRR), used when the destination is far, and link state-routing (terminode local routing, TLR), used when the destination is close. TRR uses anchored paths, a list of geographic points (not nodes) used as loose source routing information. Anchored paths are discovered and managed by sources, using one of two low overhead protocols: friend assisted path discovery and geographical map-based path discovery. Our simulation results show that terminode routing performs well in networks of various sizes. In smaller networks; the performance is comparable to MANET routing protocols. In larger networks that are not uniformly populated with nodes, terminode routing outperforms, existing location-based or MANET routing protocols.     

Fault-tolerant routing in adversarial mobile ad hoc networks: an efficient route estimation scheme for non-stationary environments

Designing routing schemes that would successfully operate in the presence of adversarial environments in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) is a challenging issue. In this paper, we discuss fault-tolerant routing schemes operating in a network with malfunctioning nodes. Most existing MANET protocols were postulated considering scenarios where all the mobile nodes in the ad hoc network function properly, and in an idealistic manner. However, adversarial environments are common in MANET environments, and misbehaving nodes certainly degrade the performance of these routing protocols. The need for fault tolerant routing protocols was identified to address routing in adversarial environments in the presence of faulty nodes by exploring redundancy-based strategies in networks. It turns out that since the nodes are mobile, the random variables encountered are non-stationary, implying that estimation methods for stationary variables are inadequate. Consequently, in this paper, we present a new fault-tolerant routing scheme that invokes a stochastic learning-based weak estimation procedure to enhance a route estimation phase, which, in turn, is then incorporated in a route selection phase. We are not aware of any reported method that utilizes non-traditional estimates to achieve the ranking of the possible paths. The scheme, which has been rigorously tested by simulation, has been shown to be superior to the existing algorithms.     

MANET Routing with Provably Low Complexity Through Constant Density Clustering and Route Request Broadcast

As mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are emerging as important components in critical and large-scale applications, it is crucial to develop MANET routing mechanisms with provably low complexity. In this paper, we give a tutorial overview of the efficient use of elementary node clustering and route request broadcast mechanisms for low-complexity MANET routing. We explain these mechanisms with illustrative examples and discuss their theoretical performance characteristics. We demonstrate that node clustering with constant density and route request broadcasting with a doubling radius technique over the network of cluster leaders can be employed for MANET routing with theoretically proven low complexity. Moreover, we contrast these efficient elementary clustering and route request broadcast mechanisms with clustering and route information accumulation mechanisms in the widely studied AODV and DSR routing protocols and discuss the implications of these various mechanisms for scalable MANET routing.     

Mobile IPv6-based ad hoc networks: its development and application

The Internet protocol version 6 (IPv6)-enabled network architecture has recently attracted much attention. In this paper, we address the issue of connecting mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) to global IPv6 networks, while supporting IPv6 mobility. Specifically, we propose a self-organizing, self-addressing, self-routing IPv6-enabled MANET infrastructure, referred to as IPv6-based MANET. The proposed self-organization addressing protocol automatically organizes nodes into tree architecture and configures their global IPv6 addresses. Novel unicast and multicast routing protocols, based on longest prefix matching and soft state routing cache, are specially designed for the IPv6-based MANET. Mobile IPv6 is also supported such that a mobile node can move from one MANET to another. Moreover, a peer-to-peer (P2P) information sharing system is also designed over the proposed IPv6-based MANET. We have implemented a prototyping system to demonstrate the feasibility and efficiency of the IPv6-based MANET and the P2P information sharing system. Simulations are also conducted to show the efficiency of the proposed routing protocols.     

Routing Algorithms for MANET-IoT Networks: A Comprehensive Survey

With the powerful evolution of wireless communication systems in recent years, mobile ad hoc networks (MANET) are more and more applied in many fields such as environment, energy efficiency, intelligent transport systems, smart agriculture, and IoT ecosystems, as well as expected to contribute role more and more important in the future Internet. However, due to the characteristic of the mobile ad hoc environment, the performance is dependent mainly on the deployed routing protocol and relative low. Therefore, routing protocols should be more flexible and intelligent to enhance network performance. This paper surveyed and analysed a series of recently proposed routing protocols for MANET-IoT networks. Results have shown that these protocols are classified into four main categories: performance improvement, quality of service (QoS-aware), energy-saving, and security-aware. Most protocols are evolved from these existing traditional protocols. Then, we compare the performance of the four traditional routing protocols under the different movement speeds of the network node aim determines the most stable routing protocol in smart cities environments. The experimental results showed that the proactive protocol work is good when the movement network nodes are low. However, the reactive protocols have more stable and high performance for high movement network scenarios. Thus, we confirm that the proposal of the routing protocols for MANET becomes more suitable based on improving the ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing protocol. This study is the premise for our further in-depth research on IoT ecosystems.

     

Biologically inspired artificial intrusion detection system for detecting wormhole attack in MANET

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) does not have traffic concentration points such as gateway or access points which perform behaviour monitoring of individual nodes. Therefore, maintaining the network function for the normal nodes when other nodes do not forward and route properly is a big challenge. One of the significant attacks in ad hoc network is wormhole attack. In this wormhole attack, the adversary disrupts ad hoc routing protocols using higher bandwidth and lower-latency links. Wormhole attack is more hidden in character and tougher to detect. So, it is necessary to use mechanisms to avoid attacking nodes which can disclose communication among unauthorized nodes in ad hoc networks. Mechanisms to detect and punish such attacking nodes are the only solution to solve this problem. Those mechanisms are known as intrusion detection systems (IDS). In this paper, the suggested biological based artificial intrusion detection system (BAIDS) include hybrid negative selection algorithm (HNSA) detectors in the local and broad detection subsection to detect anomalies in ad hoc network. In addition to that, response will be issued to take action over the misbehaving nodes. These detectors employed in BAIDS are capable of discriminating well behaving nodes from attacking nodes with a good level of accuracy in a MANET environment. The performance of BAIDS in detecting wormhole attacks in the background of DSR, AODV and DSDV routing protocols is also evaluated using Qualnet v 5.2 network simulator. Detection rate, false alarm rate, packet delivery ratio, routing overhead are used as metrics to compare the performance of HNSA and the BAIDS technique.     

A routing protocol for mobile ad‐hoc networks using the profit optimization model

Recently, wireless networks have become one of the major development trends in computer network technology. Because there is no more need of the wired transmission medium, applications have thus diversified. One such growing field of wireless networks is the mobile ad‐hoc network (MANET). A MANET consists of mobile hosts (such as portable laptops, vehicles, etc.), and no fixed infrastructure is required. MANETs provide ease of self‐configuration and can extend coverage at a low cost. Numerous applications have therefore been proposed under this network environment for daily life use. Because MANETs nodes are capable of moving, MANET network topology changes frequently. Thus, the traditional routing protocols fail to fit such an environment. In this paper, we propose an efficient routing protocol for MANETs, which integrates the mathematical model of profit optimization (the Kelly formula) from the field of economics to cope with the routing problem caused by node mobility. Some numerical simulations have been conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed method using the network simulator NS‐2. The results show that our proposed method outperforms conventional routing protocols in packet delivery ratio comparisons; and the average end‐to‐end delays are within a tolerable range. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

LSCR:一种Mobile Ad hoc网络链路状态分组路由算法

本文提出了一种Mobile Ad hoc网络(Manet)链路状态分组路由算法(Link State-hased Cluster Routing Algo-rithm-LSCR)，该算法对Manet节点进行动态分组，每一组选举出一个具有最大度数的头结点(CH-Cluster Header)，该cH负责本组信息的管理、组内结点与组外结点之间的通信以及与其他组的CH之间交换链路状态信息等工作．本算法将改进的链路状态协议与分组路由协议有机结合，有效提高了Manet网络的路由效率．分析和实验结果表明，这种算法具有路由收敛速度快、维护成本相对较低，数据包发送成功率高，发送等待时间短等特点。     

The Effects of Physical Layer on the Routing Wireless Protocol

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are characterized by multiple entities, a frequently changing network topology and the need for efficient dynamic routing protocols. In MANETs, nodes are usually powered by batteries. Power control is tightly coupled with both the physical and medium access layers (MACs). However, if we increase the transmission power, at the same time we increase the interference to other nodes which diminish the transport capacity of wireless systems. Thus, the routing protocols based on hop count metric suffer from performance degradation when they operate over MANET. Routing in ad hoc wireless networks is not only a problem of finding a route with shortest length, but it is also a problem of finding a stable and good quality communication route in order to avoid any unnecessary packet loss. Cross-layer design of ad hoc wireless networks has been receiving increasing attention recently. Part of these researches suggests that routing should take into account physical layer characteristics. The goal of this paper is to improve the routing reliability in MANET and to reduce power consumption through cross-layer approach among physical, MAC and network layers. The proposed cross-layer approach is based on signal to interference plus noise ratio (SINR) and received signal strength indication (RSSI) coming from the physical layer. This solution performs in one hand the ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing protocol by choosing reliable routes with less interferences using SINR metric and in another hand; it permits to reduce the power transmission when sending the data packets by using RSSI metric.     

Deploying power‐aware on‐demand (PAOD) schemes over routing protocols of mobile wireless ad hoc networks

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is an autonomous collection of mobile nodes that communicate over relatively bandwidth‐constrained wireless links. MANETs need efficient algorithms to determine network connectivity, link scheduling, and routing. An important issue in network routing for MANETs is to conserve power while still achieve a high packet success rate. Traditional MANET routing protocols do not count for such concern. They all assume working with unlimited power reservoirs. Several ideas have been proposed for adding power‐awareness capabilities to ad hoc networks. Most of these proposals tackle the issue by either proposing new power‐aware routing protocols or modifying existing routing protocols through the deployment of power information as cost functions. None of them deal with counter‐measures that ought to be taken when nodes suffer from low power reserves and are subject to shut down in mid of normal network operations. In this paper, power‐awareness is added to a well‐known traditional routing protocol, the ad hoc on‐demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol. The original algorithm is modified to deal with situations in which nodes experience low power reserves. Two schemes are proposed and compared with the original protocol using different performance metrics such as average end‐to‐end delays, transmission success rates, and throughputs. These schemes provide capabilities for AODV to deal with situations in which operating nodes have almost consumed their power reserves. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Message redundancy removal of multi-copy routing in delay tolerant MANET

This article puts forward a new scheme to control message redundancy efficiently in delay tolerant mobile Ad-hoc networks(MANET).The class of networks generally lacks end-to-end connectivity.In order to improve the efficiency that messages are delivered successfully,multiple message copies routing protocols are usually used,but the network load is increased due to a large number of message redundancies.In the study,by using counter method,every node adds an encounter counter based on epidemic routing scheme...     

A study of a routing attack in OLSR‐based mobile ad hoc networks

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a collection of mobile nodes which are able to communicate with each other without relying on predefined infrastructures or central administration. Due to their flexibilities and easy deployment, MANET can be applied in situation where network infrastructures are not available. However, due to their unique characteristics such as open medium and the lack of central administration, they are much more vulnerable to malicious attacks than a conventional infrastructured wireless network. MANET employs routing to provide connectivity for mobile nodes that are not within direct wireless transmission range. Existing routing protocols in MANET assume a trusted and cooperative environment. However, in hostile environment, mobile nodes are susceptible to various kinds of routing attacks. In this paper, we show that an OLSR MANET node is prone to be isolated by malicious attack called Node Isolation attack. After analysing the attack in detail, we present a technique to mitigate the impact of the attack and improve the performance of the network when the attack is launched. The results of our implementations illustrate that the proposed solution can mitigate the attack efficiently. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Efficient on-demand routing for mobile ad hoc wireless access networks

In this paper, we consider a mobile ad hoc wireless access network in which mobile nodes can access the Internet via one or more stationary gateway nodes. Mobile nodes outside the transmission range of the gateway can continue to communicate with the gateway via their neighboring nodes over multihop paths. On-demand routing schemes are appealing because of their low routing overhead in bandwidth restricted mobile ad hoc networks, however, their routing control overhead increases exponentially with node density in a given geographic area. To control the overhead of on-demand routing without sacrificing performance, we present a novel extension of the ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol, called LB-AODV, which incorporates the concept of load-balancing (LB). Simulation results show that as traffic increases, our proposed LB-AODV routing protocol has a significantly higher packet delivery fraction, a lower end-to-end delay and a reduced routing overhead when compared with both AODV and gossip-based routing protocols.     

Explicit Multicasting for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks

In this paper we propose an explicit multicast routing protocol for mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). Explicit multicasting differs from common approaches by listing destination addresses in data packet headers. Using the explicit destination information, the multicast routing protocol can avoid the overhead of employing its own route construction and maintenance mechanisms by taking advantage of unicast routing table. Our protocol – termed Differential Destination Multicast (DDM) – is an explicit multicast routing protocol specifically designed for MANET environment. Unlike other MANET multicasting protocols, instead of distributing membership control throughout the network, DDM concentrates this authority at the data sources (i.e. senders) thereby giving sources knowledge of group membership. In addition, differentially-encoded, variable-length destination headers are inserted in data packets which are used in combination with unicast routing tables to forward multicast packets towards multicast receivers. Instead of requiring that multicast forwarding state to be stored in all participating nodes, this approach also provides the option of stateless multicasting. Each node independently has the choice of caching forwarding state or having its upstream neighbor to insert this state into self-routed data packets, or some combination thereof. The protocol is best suited for use with small multicast groups operating in dynamic MANET environment.     

Unidirectional link-state advertisement based on power control for MANET

Link states are studied in ad hoc network. The characters of unidirectional links are discussed. Unidirectional link-state advertisement based on power control mechanism (ULAPC) for mobile ad hoc networks (MANET) is designed. ULAPC is able to advertise unidirectional link-state to relational nodes. And it may offer help for process of routing discovery in ad hoc network. Based on ULAPC, the routing method solving the problem of unidirectional link is described in ad hoc network. Simulation results show the performance of ULAPC is better than the traditional routing protocols in many aspects.     

An EDRI-based approach for detecting and eliminating cooperative black hole nodes in MANET

Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configurable, self-maintenance network with wireless, mobile nodes. Special features of MANET like dynamic topology, hop-by-hop communications and open network boundary, made security highly challengeable in this network. From security aspect, routing protocols are highly vulnerable against a wide range of attacks like black hole. In black hole attack malicious node injects fault routing information to the network and leads all data packets toward it-self. In this paper, we proposed an approach to detect and eliminate cooperative malicious nodes in MANET with AODV routing protocol. A data control packet is used in order to check the nodes in selected path; also, by using an Extended Data Routing Information table, all malicious nodes in selected path are detected, then, eliminated from network. For evaluation, our approach and a previous work have been implemented using Opnet 14 in different scenarios. Referring to simulation results, the proposed approach decreases packet overhead and delay of security mechanism with no false positive detection. In addition, network throughput is improved by using the proposed approach.     

Improving Bandwidth Utilization of Intermittent Links in Highly Dynamic Ad Hoc Networks

Non-uniform node densities occur and intermittent links exist in highly dynamic ad hoc networks. To fit these networks, researchers usually combine delay tolerant network (DTN) routing protocols and mobile ad hoc network (MANET) routing protocols. The DTN protocol separates end-to-end links into multiple DTN links, which consist of multi-hop MANET links. Determining how to arrange DTN links and MANET links from source to end and dealing with intermittent links are performance issues, because node density ranges from sparse to dense and MANET protocols are much lighter than DTN protocols. This paper presents HMDTN, an application-network cross-layer framework, to solve the previously mentioned issues. The application layer in HMDTN supports disrupt tolerance with a large data buffer while adjusting the routing table on the basis of the connection state of links (link is disrupted or recovered), which are collected by the network layer. As a result, HMDTN increases the bandwidth utilization of intermittent links without compromising the efficiency of the MANET protocol in a reliable network. The HMDTN prototype was implemented based on Bytewalla (a Java version of DTN2) and Netfilter-based AODV. Experiments on Android devices show that unlike AODV and Epidemic, HMDTN increases the bandwidth utilization of intermittent links with a negligible increase of network overhead. In particular, HMDTN maintains the network throughput as high as regular network conditions even if the network undergoes relatively long-term (dozens of seconds or few minutes) data link disruptions.

     

Performance evaluation of ad hoc routing protocols for military communications

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are of much interest to both the research community and the military because of the potential to establish a communication network in any situation that involves emergencies. Examples are search‐and‐rescue operations, military deployment in hostile environments, and several types of police operations. One critical open issue is how to route messages considering the characteristics of these networks. The nodes act as routers in an environment without a fixed infrastructure, the nodes are mobile, the wireless medium has its own limitations compared to wired networks, and existing routing protocols cannot be employed, at least without modifications. Over the last few years, a number of routing protocols have been proposed and enhanced to address the issue of routing in MANETs. It is not clear how those different protocols perform under different environments. One protocol may be the best in one network configuration but the worst in another. This article provides an analysis and performance evaluation of those protocols that may be suitable for military communications. The evaluation is conducted in two phases. In the first phase, we compare the protocols based on qualitative metrics to locate those that may fit our evaluation criteria. In the second phase, we evaluate the selected protocols from the first phase based on quantitative metrics in a mobility scenario that reflects tactical military movements. The results disclose that there is no routing protocol in the current stage without modifications that can provide efficient routing to any size of network, regardless of the number of nodes and the network load and mobility. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.