Finite element simulation of the residual stresses in high strength carbon steel butt weld incorporating solid-state phase transformation

This paper presents a sequentially coupled three-dimensional (3-D) thermal, metallurgical and mechanical finite element (FE) model to simulate welding residual stresses in high strength carbon steel butt weld considering solid-state phase transformation effects. The effects of phase transformation during welding on residual stress evolution are modeled by allowing for volumetric changes and the associated changes in yield stress due to austenitic and martensitic transformations. In the FE model, phase transformation plasticity is also taken into account. Moreover, preheat and inter-pass temperature are included in the modeling process. Based on the FE model, the effects of solid-state phase transformation on welding residual stresses are investigated. The results indicate the importance of incorporating solid-state phase transformation in the simulation of welding residual stresses in high strength carbon steel butt weld.     

Residual stress in a thick section high strength T-butt weld

Residual stresses in a structure are generated as a result of the various fabrication and welding processes used to make the component. Being able to quantify these residual stresses is a key step in determining the continuing integrity of a structure in service. In this work, the residual stresses around a high strength, quenched and tempered steel T-butt web to curved plate weld have been measured using neutron strain scanning. The results show that the residual stresses near the weld were dominated by the welding residual stresses, while the stresses further from the weld were dominated by the bending residual stresses. The results suggest that the combination of welding-induced residual stress and significant pre-welding residual stress, as in the case of a thick bent section of plate can significantly alter the residual stress profile from that in a flat plate.     

超声捶击提高超细晶粒钢焊接接头的疲劳性能

焊接接头疲劳强度是其最重要的服役性能,由于焊接残余应力的作用和焊接接头处的几何不连续性,焊接接头的疲劳强度一般大大低于母材,采用超声捶击方法提高超细晶粒钢焊接接头的疲劳强度,通过对对接接头焊践处进行超声波冲击处理,对比超声波冲击处理后焊接接头的疲劳强度,实验结果表明：超声捶击使得S-N曲线右移,FAT（循环寿命为10^6时的疲劳强度）提高幅度达到66%,在应力范围为200MPa的疲劳寿命提高58倍,研究表明,经超声捶击处理,焊趾处的应力集中系数相应减小,焊接残余应力由拉应力转换为压应力,这是超声捶击提高焊接接头疲劳强度的主要机制。     

Finite element analysis of temperature field, microstructure and residual stress in multi-pass butt-welded 2.25Cr–1Mo steel pipes

An attempt was made to develop a thermal–metallurgical–mechanical computational procedure based on ABAQUS code to simulate welding temperature field, microstructure and residual stress in multi-pass butt-welded 2.25Cr–1Mo steel pipes. In the present work, our emphasis was to predict welding residual stress considering the influence of solid-state phase transformation. In the proposed computational procedure, the Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov equation was used to track the austenite–bainite transformation, and the Koistinen–Marburger relationship was employed to describe austenite–martensite change. Effects of volumetric change and yield strength change due to solid-state phase transformation on welding residual stress were investigated. The simulation results show that both volumetric change and yield strength change have significant effects on welding residual stress in 2.25Cr–1Mo steel pipes. The simulation results were compared with the experimental measurements, and the effectiveness of the developed computational producer was confirmed.     

Fatigue strength prediction of ultra high strength steel butt‐welded joints

First, fatigue tests were performed on butt‐welded joints made of novel direct quenched ultra high strength steel with high quality welds. Two different welding processes were used: MAG and Pulsed MAG. The weld profiles, misalignments and residual stresses were measured, and the material properties of the heat‐affected zone were determined. Fatigue tests were carried out with constant amplitude tensile loading both for joints in as‐welded condition and for joints after ultrasonic peening treatment. Finally, in fatigue strength predictions, the crack initiation phase was estimated using the procedures described by Lawrence et al. [Lawrence F V, Ho N J and Mazumdar P K (1981) Predicting the fatigue resistance of welds. Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci, 11, 401–425]. The propagation phase was simply estimated using S–N curves for normal quality butt welds, which may contain pre‐existing cracks or crack‐like defects eliminating the crack initiation stage.     

Micrometre scale residual stress measurement in fusion boundary of dissimilar steel welded joints using nanoindenter system

Abstract

In the present paper, an approach for measuring the micrometre scale residual stress around the fusion boundary in dissimilar steel welded joints was introduced. An as welded joint and a post-weld heat treated joint were examined using a nanoindenter system. The results revealed that a compressive residual stress existed around the fusion boundary in a range 200 μm extending to the overheated heat affected zone (HAZ) and 300 μm to the weld metal, and the compressive stresses were reduced after post-weld heat treatment. The maximum compressive stress occurred in the fusion boundary and then dramatically decreased in the adjacent HAZ base metal and weld metal. In comparison with the regular approaches for macrometre scale measurement, the nanoindentation has the advantages of high resolution and precision for effectively evaluating the residual stresses in a narrow region. The measuring error was analysed.     

Hybrid laser/arc welding of advanced high strength steel in different butt joint configurations

An experimental procedure was developed to join thick advanced high strength steel plates by using the hybrid laser/arc welding (HLAW) process, for different butt joint configurations. The geometry of the weld groove was optimized according to the requirements of ballistic test, where the length of the softened heat affected zone should be less than 15.9 mm from the weld centerline. The cross-section of the welds was examined by microhardness test. The microstructure of welds was investigated by scanning electron microscopy and an optical microscope for further analysis of the microstructure of fusion zone and heat affected zone. It was demonstrated that by changing the geometry of groove, and increasing the stand-off distance between the laser beam and the tip of wire in gas metal arc welding (GMAW) it is possible to reduce the width of the heat affected zone and softened area while the microhardness stays within the acceptable range. It was shown that double Y-groove shape can provide the optimum condition for the stability of arc and laser. The dimensional changes of the groove geometry provided substantial impact on the amount of heat input, causing the fluctuations in the hardness of the weld as a result of phase transformation and grain size. The on-line monitoring of HLAW of the advanced high strength steel indicated the arc and laser were stable during the welding process. It was shown that less plasma plume was formed in the case where the laser was leading the arc in the HLAW, causing higher stability of the molten pool in comparison to the case where the arc was leading.     

圆板状SiC/C功能梯度材料残余热应力特征有限元分析

功能梯度材料残余热应力的大小及分布对其性能有效发挥及长期稳定使用有着较大的负面影响,为了尽可能充分发挥材料性能,增加材料的使用寿命,需尽可能减小残余应力以及使其合理分布.本文采用ANSYS有限元分析软件对不同叠层工艺参数的等离子体第一壁候选材料--SiC/C功能梯度材料(FGM)的残余热应力进行了数值模拟,获得了使热应力有效缓和的较适宜的工艺参数,对实际研发制备目标材料也可提供一些理论参照.相关结果表明,适量增加梯度叠层数及中间梯度层厚度可逐步有效缓和残余热应力,同时,针对本文今后应用的仍以炭材料为主体的炭基陶瓷保护层复合SiC/C FGM而言,纯SiC层厚度应取较小值,而叠层成分分布指数应取0.8～1.0为宜.     

Fine structure in the inter-critical heat-affected zone of HQ130 super-high strength steel

The microstructure in the intercritical heat-affected zone (ICHAZ) of HQ130 steel, has been investigated by thermo-simulation test, SEM and TEM. The problem of toughness decrease in the ICHAZ (T _p = 800°C) as well as the effect of M-A constituent and carbide precipitation on brittleness was analysed. The test results indicated that the microstructure in the ICHAZ of HQ130 steel was mostly a mixture of lath martensite (ML) and granular bainite (Bg) with a fine but nonuniform grain structure. The cause of brittleness in the ICHAZ was related to production of the M-A constituent in the local region and carbide precipitation. By controlling the welding heat input carbide precipitation and the formation of the M-A constituent can be avoided or decreased.     

Effect of water-shower cooling during welding on tensile residual stress improvement in multi-layer welding of austenitic stainless steel plates

Abstract

A new welding method that uses a water shower behind the welding torch has been developed in order to reduce tensile residual stress in a welded region. When this method is applied to the welding of austenitic stainless steel, the welding and cooling conditions mainly determine how much the residual stress can be reduced. To optimize these conditions, we first used the robust design technique to determine the effects of the interpass temperature, the heat input quantity and the water-shower area on the residual stress distribution of bead-on-plate. We found that, to decrease the tensile residual stress, the interpass temperature should be high, the heat input low, and the water-shower area large. Effect of the water-shower cooling on multi-layer welding was examined analytically and experimentally. It was found that the residual stresses were tensile without water-shower cooling, but compressive with water-shower cooling under the optimized conditions. It can therefore be concluded that the new welding method is appropriate for reducing tensile residual stress in multi-layer welding of austenitic stainless steel.     

A fracture mechanics approach to estimate the fatigue endurance of welded t-joints including residual stress effects

Residual stresses and weld defects play a major role in the fatigue behaviour of welded structures, so these effects need to be accounted for in a theoretical analysis. A simplified engineering procedure based on linear‐elastic fracture mechanics is applied to estimate the fatigue behaviour, particularly the limit of endurance. Local geometrical irregularities and pre‐existing flaws, which are typical for this kind of weld, are covered by an overall notch intensity factor instead of a specific stress intensity factor, so the initial flaw size is not needed explicitly in the analysis. The effect of residual stresses can be easily included. The cut‐compliance method was applied to measure the residual stress distribution on the cross‐section of the weld. A welded T‐joint was used as a benchmark. Unexpectedly, compressive residual stresses were found to prevail in the root region. According to the analysis, they contribute to the endurance limit of the considered joint by about 50%. This result was confirmed by fatigue tests where a significant decrease in the fatigue strength after a post‐weld stress relieving heat treatment was observed.     

Microdebonding investigation of the effects of thermal residual stress on the bond strength of a graphite/polymide composite

The microdebonding test was used to investigate the effects of thermal residual stresses resulting from different lay-ups in fabrication on the fiber/matrix bond strength of a graphite-fiber-reinforced polyimide composite. This was accomplished by comparing the results of a cross-plied laminate with those of a unidirectional laminate. The results indicated that the measured interfacial bond strength of the unidirectional composites was greater than that of the cross-plied laminate. The thermal radial stress distribution around the fiber for the unidirectional and the [0₂, 90₂]_s laminates were estimated, to explain this reduction of the interfacial bond strength.     

焊接工艺对不锈钢角焊缝连接试件力学性能影响研究

对12个奥氏体型及12个双相型不锈钢正面角焊缝和侧面角焊缝连接试件进行了单调拉伸试验,考察了不同焊接工艺对角焊缝连接力学性能的影响.结果表明:采用氩弧焊焊接工艺的不锈钢角焊缝试件破坏面与电弧焊焊接工艺的试件破坏面形状相差较大,后者破坏面更加光滑;同时由于受到复杂应力的作用,正面角焊缝试件的真实破坏角度并不为相关规范规定...     

Fatigue strength of mash seam welded joints

Reversed bending fatigue tests have been conducted using four series of mash seam welded joints obtained from the coupling of two different steels and plate thicknesses. Fatigue strength was evaluated and the effects of material property changes resulting from welding were studied. Fatigue strength of all series of the welded joints decreased slightly compared with that of the base steel. Type of steel and plate thickness in the welded samples exerted very little influence on fatigue strength. In the welded joints between steels with the same plate thickness, fatigue failure took place at a location away from the weld zone in the plate with the lower strength, while in the welded joints between plates of different thickness, failure occurred at the shoulder between the thin and thick plate, i.e. at the weld zone. Regardless of the type of steel and the plate thicknesses joined, fatigue strengths of the mash seam welded joints were slightly higher than those of the laser welded butt joints.     

不锈钢母材及其焊缝金属材料单拉本构关系研究

对12个奥氏体型及12个双相型不锈钢正面角焊缝和侧面角焊缝连接试件进行了单调拉伸试验,考察了不同焊接工艺对角焊缝连接力学性能的影响。结果表明：采用氩弧焊焊接工艺的不锈钢角焊缝试件破坏面与电弧焊焊接工艺的试件破坏面形状相差较大,后者破坏面更加光滑;同时由于受到复杂应力的作用,正面角焊缝试件的真实破坏角度并不为相关规范规定的理论值45°;对于奥氏体型不锈钢角焊缝,氩弧焊试件与电弧焊试件的强度比分别为1.03 (正面角焊缝试件)及1.13 (侧面角焊缝试件),相对变形量之比为1.46及1.11;而对于双相型不锈钢角焊缝,两者的强度比分别为1.12和1.04,相对变形量之比为1.66及1.45;氩弧焊试件表现出了更好的力学性能。对于两种不锈钢材料,正面角焊缝强度均远大于侧面角焊缝的强度,建议在工程设计和相关规范的编制/修订中考虑正面角焊缝强度提高的影响。     

Effects of ultrasonic impact treatment on weld microstructure,hardness, and residual stress

Layered ultrasonic impact treatment (LUIT) was used on V-groove welds in 55?mm Q345 steel plate. Two welds were prepared, one by conventional gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and the other by GMAW and LUIT, where impact treatment was performed at nine stages during filling of the 28-pass weld. Microstructure, hardness, and residual stress in the welds were compared. While residual stress is very similar, there are significant differences in microstructure and hardness. The LUIT weld has mainly equiaxed grains and uniform hardness, while the conventional weld has columnar grains and a hardness gradient. It appears that beads in the LUIT weld did not exhibit columnar grain growth, and instead equiaxed grains grew from the fusion boundary into the weld.     

梯度陶瓷喷嘴残余应力的有限元分析

为了提高喷嘴的抗冲蚀磨损能力,将梯度功能材料理论运用于喷嘴材料的设计中,改传统的均质喷嘴材料为非均质喷嘴材料,提出在梯度陶瓷喷嘴制备中将残余压应力引入喷嘴入口的设计目标.在组成分布指数一定的条件下,针对主要设计参数对梯度陶瓷喷嘴残余应力的影响进行有限元分析,探讨了梯度层厚度、临界梯度层材料组分差对SiC/(W,Ti)C单梯度陶瓷喷嘴残余热应力的影响规律,在组成分布指数取0.5时,优化SiC/(W,Ti)C梯度陶瓷喷嘴梯度层厚和临界梯度层材料组分差.结果表明,残余应力随梯度层厚h及临界梯度层SiC体积组分差的不同产生很大差异,合理设计梯度层厚h及临界梯度层SiC体积组分差可在喷嘴入口形成有效残余压应力,最佳梯度层厚为5mm,临界梯度层SiC组分差小于5%(体积分数).     

Development of residual strength evaluation tool based on stress-strain approximation

To allow for a safe design of metallic structures, it must be considered that, as a result of the manufacturing and processing operations, cracks or flaws below the NDI (Non-Destructive Inspection) detectability level always exist in the component after inspection. Further problems originate from the defect geometry. Failure of engineering structural components and structures have been mostly traced to surface cracks. Especially for a surface crack containing structure that is thin, the limit collapse of a ligament is usually the main cause of structure rupture. Study of the evaluation procedure relating to the limit load of the surface crack ligament is, therefore, an important project for conventional fracture assessment, particularly for pressure vessel (LBB) assessment. For this purpose, novel more accurate residual strength prediction method based on the Elasto-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM) has been developed and tested. Laboratory tests on tensile plate specimens with surface cracks were performed considering two different materials. In the final part of the work, effort was directed toward the verification and justification of selected analytical methods by adequate component testing. The most significant results of this work deal with residual strength evaluation for the thin wall pressure containing components. The important finding is that there is a potential for improvement in comparison to the current methods that may be used to increase payoff of the lightweight structures. The presented very robust analysis method and the useful structure integrity evaluation procedure should significantly contribute to the state-of-the-art structure optimisation and being applied to the design of the light-weight structures should ease the effort of the structure engineer to develop the successful and reliable hardware and to keep in place with advancing technologies. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Unique fatigue threshold and growth properties of welded joints in a tensile residual stress field

The fatigue threshold and high growth rate region properties were investigated on several kinds of welded joints. These properties became unique in spite of the variation of steels (ferrite-pearite, martensite, austenite), welding method, heat input and stress ratio. It was revealed that the unique properties occurred from the fully opened fatigue crack due to the tensile residual stresses. Based on these results, the equation of the fatigue crack growth curve for the design and inspection of welded structures was proposed. It is also suggested that the inducement of compressive residual stress at the fatigue critical zone is effective in improving the fatigue properties of welded structures.     

Effects of residual stresses on the fatigue behaviour of welded steel structures

Residual stresses due to the welding process in steel structures can significantly affect the fatigue behaviour. Usually, high tensile residual stresses up to the yield strength are conservatively assumed at the weld toes. This conservative assumption can result in misleading fatigue assessments. Areas with compressive residual stresses may be present in complex structures, where the details are less critical than predicted. This is shown in the paper by the example of fillet‐welded stiffener ends, where beneficial compressive residual stresses cause the initiation of fatigue cracks at other locations in less‐strained areas. Another example for the effects of residual stresses concerns the stress initiation and propagation at a structural detail under fully compressive load cycles. Fatigue cracks are possible here due to high tensile residual stress fields. The conclusion is that the welding‐induced residual stresses should be known in advance for a reliable fatigue assessment, which becomes possible to an increasing extent by numerical welding simulation.