Correlation of microstructure with wear behaviour of deep cryogenically treated AISI D2 steel

This study aims to reveal the underlying mechanisms responsible for the enhancement of wear resistance of AISI D2 steel by deep cryogenic treatment (DCT) through in-depth microstructural analyses, and thereby attempt to correlate microstructure with wear behaviour of DCT specimens with reference to that of conventional heat treatment (CHT) and cold treatment (CT). Microstructural characterizations of the differently treated specimens have been done by image analyses of optical and SEM photographs, XRD, and EDX analyses, whereas wear behaviour has been characterized by wear rate, wear resistance, and analyses of worn surfaces, wear debris and subsurfaces. The results indicate that DCT markedly enhances the wear resistance of the selected steel compared to CHT and CT. Formation of white layer and its subsequent delamination have been identified as the operative wear mechanisms; the extent of these phenomena and the consequent wear rate is dependent on the type of treatment that determines the microstructures. The wear behaviour can be unambiguously correlated with the modifications in the precipitation behaviour of secondary carbides and reduction in the retained austenite content of the microstructure, which are the governing mechanisms for the improved of wear resistance of tool steels by DCT.     

Hardness properties and high-temperature wear behavior of nitrided AISI D2 tool steel, prior and after PAPVD coating

Wear experiments in the range of 25–600 °C have been conducted on samples of D2 tool steel in different conditions involving unnitrided, nitrided and nitrided and coated with Balinit^® A (TiN) and Balinit^® Futura (TiAlN) deposited industrially at Balzers (Amherst, NY, USA), by means of PAPVD. The results indicate that coating the nitrided D2 tool steel substrate with these two films gives rise to an improvement of 97% (TiN) and 99% (TiAlN) in the wear behavior at the test temperature of 300 °C, in comparison with the uncoated substrate. However, at a temperature of 600 °C, besides oxidation of the coatings, the mechanical strength of the substrate decreases giving rise to fracture and delamination of the films. At this temperature the uncoated substrate exhibited the highest resistance to sliding wear, presumably due to the formation of a well bonded surface glazed layer which gives rise to a significant reduction in the friction coefficient. The indentation experiments that were conducted with the nitrided steel substrate and the coated systems indicates that the nitriding process applied to the D2 steel prior to PAPVD coating provides a satisfactory load support which contributes to the improvement of the coated systems capability to withstand indentation loads at room temperature. In this regard, the coated system with a TiAlN coating displayed a better behavior than that shown by the system with a TiN coating. An experimental procedure is proposed in order to predict the hardness profile of the nitrided tool steel, along the cross section of the material, just from hardness measurements taken on the surface of the sample, employing different indentation loads.     

Study of solid particle erosion on AISI D2 using angular silicon carbide and steel round grit particles

Abstract

In this study, the performance of AISI D2 steel subjected to solid particle erosion tests was analysed. This material has applications for tools and dies for blanking, wood milling cutters, cold-extruding and other operations requiring high compressive strength and excellent wear resistance. The erosion tests performed by using a rig developed according to some parameters of the ASTM G76-95 standard. Two abrasive were used, angular silicon carbide (SiC) and steel round grit, both, with a particle size of 400–420 μm. This allowed comparing the erosion severity of each abrasive particle. The tests were conducted using four different incident angles 30, 45, 60 and 90° with a particle velocity of 24±2 m s^?1 and a flow rate of 21±2·5 g min^?1 for silicon carbide and 48·5±3·5 g min^?1 for the steel round grit. The exposure testing time was 10 min. Subsequently, the surface damage was analysed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) to identify the wear mechanisms. Additionally, atomic force microscopy (AFM) was conducted in order to obtain roughness of the surface damage at 60°. The results indicated that higher amount of mass loss was obtained by angular silicon carbide particles.     

Electrical discharge machining of the AISI D6 tool steel: Prediction and modeling of the material removal rate and tool wear ratio

In this investigation, response surface method was used to predict and optimize the material removal rate and tool wear ratio during electrical discharge machining of AISI D6 tool steel. Pulse on time, pulse current, and voltage were considered as input process parameters. Furthermore, the analysis of variance was employed for checking the developed model results. The results revealed that higher values of pulse on time resulted in higher values of material removal rate and lower amounts of tool wear ratio. In addition, increasing the pulse current caused to higher amounts of both material removal rate and tool wear ratio. Moreover, the higher the input voltage, the lower the both material removal rate and tool wear ratio. The optimal condition to obtain a maximum of material removal rate and a minimum of tool wear rate was 40 μs, 14 A and 150 V, respectively for the pulse on time, pulse current and input voltage.     

Wear properties of friction stir processed AISI D2 tool steel

Influences of microstructural and textural properties of friction stir processing (FSP) on dry reciprocating wear properties of AISI D2 tool steel are investigated in this study. The mechanical improvement is attributed not only to the homogenous distribution of very small carbides in a refined matrix, but also to significant development of textures during FSP. The excellent wear resistance is ascribed to nanohardness enhancement of the FSPed steel. Dominant shear components of {111} 〈110〉 and {112} 〈111〉 with the lowest Taylor׳s factor and the high density of close-packed planes formation significantly enhance the wear resistance of FSPed sample at 500 rpm.     

Tool wear and chip analysis after the hard turning of AISI D6 steel assisted by LN2

Abstract

Sustainability is a concept which is widely considered nowadays, including in factories where machining operations are present. The search for methods able to improve the performance of industrial processes without damaging the environment or the worker’s health has been the main goal of several investigations. In this context, cryogenic machining is a technique that has been studied as an alternative to the use of mineral oil-based cutting fluids, mainly in the machining of titanium and nickel alloys. Investigations on the cryogenic machining of hard tool steels are still scarce in the literature. This article presents results from a series of turning trials under dry and cryogenic conditions using a hardened AISI D6 tool steel bar (57 HRC) as the workpiece. For the cryogenic machining tests, liquid nitrogen was delivered to the flank face, rake face and on both faces of PCBN inserts. The main cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut) were kept constant during the trials. Tool wear and chip morphology were the output variables studied. The results show that the liquid nitrogen was able to reduce the cutting tool wear, providing a tool lifetime around 50% longer compared with the dry process. Moreover, the frequency of chip segmentation was diminished under cryogenic conditions in comparison with the dry process.     

Friction and wear properties of UHMWPE/Al2O3 ceramic under different lubricating conditions

Friction and wear behavior of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) sliding against Al₂O₃ ceramic under dry sliding, and lubrication of fresh plasma, distilled water and physiological saline were investigated with a self-made pin-on-disk apparatus at 37±1°C. The worn surfaces were examined with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The results show that the friction behavior of UHMWPE is very sensitive to its water absorption state. The wear rate of UHMWPE under dry sliding is the highest and under plasma lubrication is the lowest. The wear mechanisms are different under dry friction and various lubricating conditions.     

Wear behaviour of AISI D3 and AISI M3:2 tool steels in a mass production shearing operation

The wear of two tool steels (AISI D3 and AISI M3:2) was compared in a normal production shearing operation by scanning electron microscopy at fixed production intervals.After the wear-in period, in which plastic deformation was observed, abrasive wear occurred by the action of small carbides. Wear was more uniform with AISI M3:2 tool steel than with AISI D3 tool steel and the AISI M3:2 tool produced a better finish of the sheared sheet lips.     

Study on tribological properties of Al2O3 ceramics/1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel rubbing pairs in H2O2 solutions

The tribological properties of (Al₂O₃) ceramics/1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel rubbing pairs were investigated using a MMW‐1 tribo‐tester under pure water and different concentrations of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) solutions. A comparison analysis of the friction coefficient, wear mass loss and worn surface topographies was conducted. The wear mass loss of the 1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel ring sample in all H₂O₂ solutions was greater than that in pure water. The wear mass loss was the highest in 70% H₂O₂ solution. The comprehensive analysis showed that the main wear mechanisms between the Al₂O₃ ceramics/1Cr18Ni9Ti stainless steel rubbing pairs were severe adhesive, abrasive and ploughing wear in the H₂O₂ solutions. It is believed that the knowledge gained in this study will provide the theoretical data and guide for the optimisation of the rubbing pairs in the H₂O₂ solutions to be used for the lubrication of some moving parts in the propulsion system of the launch vehicle. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

3D and 2D structural characterization of 1D Al/Al2O3 biphasic nanostructures

1D Al/Al₂O₃ nanostructures have been synthesized by chemical vapour deposition (CVD) of the molecular precursor [^tBuOAlH₂]₂. The deposited nanostructures grow chaotically on the substrate forming a layer with a high porosity (80%). Depending on the deposition time, diverse nanostructured surfaces with different distribution densities were achieved. A three‐dimensional (3D) reconstruction has been evaluated for every nanostructure density using the Focus Ion Beam (FIB) tomography technique and reconstruction software tools. Several structural parameters such as porosity, Euler number, geometrical tortuosity and aspect ratio have been quantified through the analysis with specified software of the reconstructions. Additionally roughness of the prepared surfaces has been characterized at micro‐ and nanoscale using profilometry and AFM techniques, respectively. While high aspects ratio around 20–30 indicates a strong anisotropy in the structure, high porosity values (around 80%) is observed as a consequence of highly tangled geometry of such 1D nanostructures.     

Transition of elevated-temperature wear mechanisms and the oxidative delamination wear in hot-working die steels

Dry sliding wear tests of H13 and H21 steels were performed at 400 °C. The wear mechanisms and their transitions were studied, and an oxidative delamination wear was suggested. A mild oxidative wear prevailed with oxide fatigue delamination under less than 3.54 MPa. Under 3.54-5.31 MPa, the oxidative wear prevailed with oxide fatigue delamination and the oxidative delamination wear. As the pressure surpassed 5.31 MPa, a severe wear prevailed with the oxidative delamination wear and the plastic extrusion. The oxidative delamination wear meant that the delamination occurred inside the matrix underneath tribo-oxides with long-ditch delamination and belt-like wear debris.     

Tribological Performance of Boronized,Nitrided, and Normalized AISI 4140 Steel against Hydrogenated Diamond-Like Carbon-Coated AISI D2 Steel

In the current work, AISI 4140 steel was pack-boronized at 950°C for 3 h and gas-nitrided at 550°C for 72 h. All specimens used in this work were prepared from the same steel bar. A 3-µm-thick diamond-like carbon (DLC) coating (a-C:H) was deposited on the AISI D2 high-carbon, high-chromium, cold-worked tool steel by a plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition technique. Normalized, boronized, and nitrided steel pins were tested against DLC-coated AISI D2 steel at various normal loads (15, 30, 60, and 80 N) for 1,000 and 3,000 m sliding distance in ambient air. Specific wear rate of all pins decreased with increasing load, and a similar trend was observed for the coefficient of friction (COF). Microscopic and energy-dispersive spectroscopic (EDS) analysis confirmed the role of the transfer layer for a low COF with increasing load. At all loads, the specific wear rate of boronized pins was lower than that of the nitrided and normalized pin specimens. Boronized pins showed a specific wear rate in the range of 0.27 × 10^?8 to 0.44 × 10^?8 mm³/Nm and the COF was about 0.1.     

Experimental investigation and economic analysis of surfactant (Span-20) in powder mixed electrical discharge machining (PMEDM) of AISI D2 hardened steel

Abstract

Powder mixed EDM (PMEDM) is recognized as an advanced and innovative technique with enhanced performance and limited drawbacks in comparison to conventional EDM method. This study investigates the effect of powder particle size, various powder concentrations (C_p), and surfactant concentrations (C_s) on the performance of EDM. Since the machining characteristics are highly dependent on the dielectric performances, significant attention has been directed to introduce Cr powder and Span-20 surfactant into the dielectric fluid to achieve higher productivity and enhanced surface integrity. The EDM machining was carried out on AISI D2 hardened steel through ´Plug & Plaý dielectric circulating system attached to the main machine in order to evaluate the machining performances (i.e. MRR, EWR, and R_a). Interestingly, machining performance was improved with combination of Cr powder mixed and span-20 surfactant. By comparing the performance of span-20 surfactant and micro-nano chromium, the result within selected parameters shows that the span-20 surfactant and nano-chromium is the better choice for the EDM of AISI D2 hardened steel. In the machinability studies, the EDM machining of AISI D2 hardened steel by using span-20 surfactant and nano-chromium has exhibited the excellent machining performances, which led to 45.08% MRR enhancement and 68.89% R_a enhancement comparing to micro-chromium powder and span-20 surfactant led to 35.28% MRR and 28.96% R_a. Furthermore, cost analysis revealed that the nano-Cr powder size was approximately 4 times more economical than micro-Cr powder in machining of AISI D2 hardened steel, although the price for 1?kg is quite expensive.     

Al2O3-SiO2／AZ91D复合材料蠕变行为的研究

研究了Al2O3-SiO2短纤维增强AZ91D复合材料在不同温度下的蠕变性能。结果表明,Al2O3-SiO2／AZ91D复合材料具有良好的抗高温蠕变性能。显微分析发现,复合材料在蠕变过程中部分纤维发生断裂。纤维／基体界面处的缺陷和微裂纹在加载应力的作用下逐渐扩展,最终导致复合材料的蠕变断裂。     

High-temperature friction and wear behaviour of different tool steels during sliding against Al–Si-coated high-strength steel

The recent years have witnessed an increasing usage of high-strength steels as structural reinforcements and in energy-absorbing systems in automobile applications due to their favourable high-strength-to-weight ratios. Owing to poor formability, complex-shaped high-strength steel components are invariably produced through hot-metal forming. The high-strength steel sheets are in some instances used with an Al–Si-coating with a view to prevent scaling of components during hot-metal forming. However, friction and wear characteristics of Al–Si-coated high-strength steel during interaction with different tool steels have not yet been investigated. With this in view, friction and wear behaviours of different tool steels sliding against Al–Si-coated high-strength steel at elevated temperatures have been investigated by using a high-temperature version of the Optimol SRV reciprocating friction and wear tester at temperatures of 40, 400 and 800 °C. In these studies both temperature ramp tests with continuously increasing temperature from 40 to 800 °C and constant temperature tests at 40, 400 and 800 °C, have been conducted. The results have shown that both the friction and wear of tool steel/Al–Si-coated high-strength steel pairs are temperature dependent. Friction decreased with increasing temperature whereas wear of the tool steel increased with temperature. On the other hand, the Al–Si-coated high-strength steel showed significantly lower wear rates at 800 °C as compared to those at 40 and 400 °C. The Al–Si-coated surface undergoes some interesting morphological changes when exposed to elevated temperatures and these changes may affect the friction and wear characteristics. The mechanisms of these changes and their influence on the tribological process are unclear and further studies are necessary to fully explain these mechanisms.     

Influence of the countermaterial on the dry sliding friction and wear behaviour of low temperature carburized AISI316L steel

Low temperature carburising (LTC) allows a significant hardness increase, with a consequent increase in wear resistance, without deteriorating corrosion behaviour. However, wear resistance strongly depends on contact conditions, therefore this work focuses on the dry sliding behaviour of LTC-treated AISI316L austenitic stainless steel against several countermaterials (AISI316L, LTC-treated AISI316L, hard chromium or plasma-sprayed Al₂O₃–TiO₂). LTC produced a hardened surface layer (C-supersaturated expanded austenite), which improved corrosion resistance in NaCl 3.5% and increased wear resistance, to an extent which depends on both normal load and countermaterial. The best results were obtained when at least one of the contacting bodies was LTC-treated, because this condition led to mild tribo-oxidative wear. However, LTC did not improve the behaviour in terms of friction.     

Comparison of the wear resistance of selected steels and cemented carbide cutting tool materials in machining wood

An experimental investigation is described where specimens of selected steels and cemented carbides are tested to simulate cutting green wood and cured wood. Extensive results are presented that show quantitatively the progressive wear of several Stellites, steels and cemented carbides as a function of time for sliding under wet and dry conditions.A simple theoretical analysis of tool wear that applies to cutting green wood with cemented carbide tools is described. The analysis, which indicates the important parameters in the wear process, is used to predict the effect of carbide particle size on wear rate. Comparisons are made between the predicted and experimentally determined wear rates for two groups of cemented carbide materials. Good agreement is found between experimental measurements and theoretical predictions. It is shown that wear depends on carbide particle size. Superior wear resistance of cemented carbides is attributed to the high hardness and low chemical reactivity of the carbide phase. The improved wear resistance of the Stellites is attributed to the low reactivity of the matrix.     

Ni-P-Cr2O3化学复合镀层耐磨性的研究

研究了热处理对Ni-P-Cr2O3化学复合镀层组织结构、硬度及耐磨性的影响，并与Ni-P镀层作了对比。结果表明，镀层的摩损规律与硬度变化规律不同，采用正确的热处理工艺，可使镀层的硬度及耐磨性显著改善。     

Al2O3基陶瓷刀具车削300M超高强度钢的刀具寿命研究

采用对角正交回归试验法,求得Al2O3基陶瓷刀具切削300M超高强度钢的刀具寿命经验公式,并分析了切削用量对刀具寿命的影响.通过扫描电子显微镜的观察和能谱分析仪的分析,对Al2O3基陶瓷刀具的损坏形态和磨损机理进行了研究.研究表明:Al2O3基陶瓷刀具车削300M超高强度钢时,粘结磨损和磨粒磨损是主要的磨损机理;合理的切削参数为:切削速度200～300 m/min、切削深度0.1～0.15 mm、进给量0.05～0.1 mm/r.