Measuring project team performance: A review and conceptualization

Performance measurement has been a central topic of study in project management research for many years. However, the literature on project team performance measurement is fragmented and underdeveloped. To address these limitations, we conducted a systematic literature review aimed at organizing the state-of-the art, providing a better conceptualization of project team performance measurement, and strengthening theory in the field. We used an inductive approach to synthesize the literature and, building upon the performance measurement design literature and the Input-Mediator-Outcome (IMO) model of team effectiveness, we propose a theoretical framework that organizes project team performance measures around two axes: the nature of performance (i.e., efficiency or effectiveness), and the nature of the measure (i.e., tangible or intangible). By combining these two axes, we propose a 2 × 2 performance measurement structure composed of four dimensions: (1) project team processes, (2) project team emergent states, (3) project team tangible outcomes, and (4) project team perceptual benefits. Our study advances theory by offering a comprehensive and integral understanding of project team performance measurement and providing an evidence-based framework that could help practitioners improve the design of performance measurement systems for project teams.     

Relationships between project governance and information technology governance and their impact on project performance

This research endeavors to address the question of how to enhance project performance through exploring the relationships among information technology (IT) governance, project governance and project performance. The research utilizes an empirical survey methodology. The survey of 533 working professionals in various industries renders 282 usable responses or a response rate of 53.91%. The results suggest that both IT governance and project governance have a positive impact on project performance. Moreover, we found that three dimensions of IT governance (i.e., strategy setting, value delivery, and performance management) are positively associated with project performance while all three dimensions of project governance (i.e., portfolio direction, project sponsorship as well as project effectiveness & efficiency, and disclosure & reporting) are positively associated with project performance. Additionally, the alignment between IT governance and project governance is also found to be positively associated with project performance. These findings provide evidence to project management professionals in regard to IT governance and project governance being part of the operational strategy in facilitating the success of projects. It also demonstrates the importance of the alignment strategy between IT governance and project governance in enhancing project performance.     

Effect of social identification on ego depletion of project managers: The role of project tasks and project complexity

The interorganizational context of construction projects offers project managers multiple social identifications (i.e., project identification and organizational identification) and different tasks (i.e., interorganizational tasks and intraorganizational tasks), which may lead to ego depletion of project managers and impair project performance. Drawing on social identity theory and ego depletion theory, this study examines the effect of social identification on ego depletion of project managers via interorganizational and intraorganizational tasks. Using survey data from 432 construction project managers, the results show that project managers with strong project identification undertake more interorganizational tasks and less intraorganizational tasks, which increases their ego depletion. Conversely, project managers with strong organizational identification undertake more intraorganizational tasks and less interorganizational tasks, which decreases their ego depletion. The results also provide evidence that the effect of social identification on ego depletion is stronger when project complexity is high and weaker when project complexity is low. This study contributes to the understanding of ego depletion mechanism of project managers associated with the trade-off process between different identifications and project tasks. The findings advance the psychological underpinnings of organizational behavior in project organizations and can help project managers handle their ego depletion to achieve higher individual performance and project performance.     

The effects of organizational culture and environmental pressures on IT project performance: A moderation perspective

In this study we examine the impact of culture and environmental pressures on IT project performance. Specifically, the current study examines four dimensions of organizational culture (i.e., institutional collectivism, results orientation, positive work environment, leadership risk tolerance) and environmental pressures that are competitive and regulatory in nature. Within the context of these variables this study examines the moderating effect of environmental pressures (i.e., levels of competitive and regulatory pressure) on the relationship between organizational culture and IT project performance. The model was empirically tested with data from the United States and China. These two countries were chosen due to their very distinctive characteristics related to organizational resources and environmental factors.     

Mitigating the negative performance effect of project complexity through an informal mechanism: The conditional mediating role of knowledge hiding

Project complexity consisting of interrelated organizational and technological components is the inherent nature of new product development (NPD) projects. Although substantial empirical research has demonstrated the negative performance effect of project complexity, a handful of studies have provided inconsistent results. Additional in-depth attention is urgently needed to understand the conditional boundaries and internal mechanisms that affect the complexity-performance relationship. Based on a perspective of counterproductive knowledge processes, this study examines the mediating role of knowledge hiding in the linkage between project complexity and project performance as well as the contingent role of informal mechanisms (i.e., trust). Data were collected from a sample of 109 NPD projects in the Chinese high-tech industry. Our findings indicated that project complexity was positively associated with knowledge hiding and exerted an indirect negative influence on project performance via knowledge hiding. Trust was found to significantly moderate the complexity-knowledge hiding and knowledge hiding-performance paths. Moreover, as trust increases, the negative indirect impact of project complexity on project performance was found to become weaker. Finally, theoretical implications, practical guidelines and limitations were discussed.     

Effects of cooperative procurement procedures on construction project performance: A conceptual framework

In this paper, we develop a testable holistic procurement framework that examines how a broad range of procurement related factors affects project performance criteria. Based on a comprehensive literature review, we put forward propositions suggesting that cooperative procurement procedures (joint specification, selected tendering, soft parameters in bid evaluation, joint subcontractor selection, incentive-based payment, collaborative tools, and contractor self-control) generally have a positive influence on project performance (cost, time, quality, environmental impact, work environment, and innovation). We additionally propose that these relationships are moderated or mediated by the collaborative climate (i.e. the trust and commitment among partners) in the project and moderated by the overall project characteristics (i.e. how challenging the project is in terms of complexity, customization, uncertainty, value/size, and time pressure). Based on our contribution, future research can test the framework empirically to further increase the knowledge about how procurement factors may influence project performance.     

Quantitative analysis of policies for governance of emergent dynamics in complex construction projects

The complexity trend of construction projects is increasing, not only technologically but on several other fronts, such as the institutional diversity of the actors and the coupling of their interactions. As a result of this increase in complexity, projects frequently face the dynamics attributed to emerging actors, coalitions, contextual properties, or synergies. Reflecting this trend within the project governance framework provides a better understanding of the emergent risks that arise in the form of conflicts, project renegotiations, extreme modifications, or write-offs from projects. The aim of this study is to propose interactional analysis (IA) as a quantitative risk assessment (QRA) methodology to analyse and govern the emergent risks associated with the interactions in a system of systems (SoS), such as complex construction projects. Therefore, interactions are framed as the coupling of actors, and their associated emergent dynamics are quantified based on the equilibria of the interaction. Risk mitigation policies are then developed and analysed based on the associated interactional elements and mathematical functions. Policymakers can apply the methodology to develop policies and gauge their effectiveness in governance of the emergent dynamics within interactional contexts to overcome the challenges associated with infrastructure development.     

Grasping project complexity in large engineering projects: The TOE (Technical, Organizational and Environmental) framework

This paper presents a framework for characterising project complexity in large engineering projects, which can be used to adapt the front-end development phase of engineering projects to the particular complexity. Recently, a large number of project complexity related papers were published, demonstrating the evident importance of “complexity” in current project management research. However, no generally accepted framework is available to support the characterising and understanding of project complexity that appreciates the richness of project complexity in large engineering projects. Therefore the TOE (Technical, Organizational, and Environmental) framework was developed, based on a literature survey building upon existing work and on new empirical work consisting of eighteen interviews about six projects in the process engineering industry. As a result of an inductive approach, this framework presents the elements that contribute to project complexity from a theoretical as well as a practical perspective. The framework can be used to assess the complexity of engineering projects, and subsequently adapt the front-end development phase of projects in order to better manage the complexity of the project.     

The role of inertia in explanations of project performance: A framework and evidence from project-based organizations

The paper argues that inertia governs the search for explanations of project performance in ways that potentially could impair the quality of feedback obtained about past performance, and thus jeopardise ongoing strategy-making. Based on a critique of relevant literature, the paper presents a novel three-stage framework for analysing connections among inertia and the search for explanations of performance in project-based organizations. This framework helps to show the significance of inertia for the adoption of alternative routes for such search. The framework is illustrated using case study vignettes. These are based on in-depth interviews with senior project management practitioners at two global organizations, about the explanation of project performance (i.e. the attainment or failure to achieve related objectives). Conjectures based on the framework and the vignettes are presented to stimulate further research on how organizations search for explanations of project performance, and on the implications of inertia for organizational and project level learning and strategy.     

Effect of project complexity on cost and schedule performance in transportation projects

Project complexity is a contributing factor to project performance. Understanding how project complexity interacts with management actions and project performance is imperative. This study fills this knowledge gap by empirically exploring the relationship between construction project complexity and project performance and their interaction with resource allocation. Empirical data were collected from 79 transportation projects. Due to its capability to build several regression models by adding independent variables to previous models, moderated hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to identify the underlying effect of resource allocation on the project complexity and performance relationship. The results show that: (i) project complexity was significantly correlated with schedule growth (positive correlation) but not significantly correlated with cost growth; (ii) resource allocation was significantly correlated with schedule growth (negative correlation) but not with cost growth; and (iii) resource allocation had a buffering effect where increasing resource allocation significantly decreases the effect of project complexity on schedule growth. The findings from this study contribute to the extant literature on construction project complexity by empirically showing that the impact of project complexity on schedule performance interacts with the level of resource allocation. This understanding of the role of resource allocation may help construction managers and engineers to better administer and manage their complex transportation projects. The findings also imply that organizations should appropriately evaluate project complexity to allocate necessary resources to achieve project success.     

Design error management: interaction of people,organisation and the project environment in construction

Design errors can have a negative impact on the cost, schedule and safety performance of construction projects. They can also have an adverse effect on an organisation's profitability, as additional work requires resources and time to rectify the error that has occurred. The reduction (i.e. measures designed to limit the occurrence of failures) and containment (i.e. measures designed to increase the detection and accelerate the recovery of errors) of design errors can therefore ameliorate organisational and project performance as well as improve safety. A systemic framework that classifies design error reduction and containment strategies according to people, organisation and project is propagated. It is suggested that when people, organisational and project strategies are implemented, incongruence then the propensity for design error reduction will significantly increase. The proposed framework can be used as a point for reference for implementing error management strategies to anticipate for ‘what might go wrong’ in construction projects.     

Identification and evaluation of the key social competencies for Chinese construction project managers

It is well understood that an individual's competency has a significant effect on his/her performance. While the more traditional “hard” technical skills of project managers have drawn much attention, little light has been shed on the “soft” skills, especially social competencies in the construction context. This study has adopted a well-established competency model from human resource management theories as a basis for the theoretical framework to examine the social competencies of construction project managers. This led to the development of a model via the use of a structural equation modelling approach. Four dimensions of social competencies for construction project managers were identified, i.e. working with others, stakeholder management, leading others, and social awareness. Attention to these attributes will help construction project managers to develop their social competencies, and could contribute towards a better performance in their workplace which will in turn improve the performance of the whole organisation. Implications of adopting this approach were also discussed.     

Socio-organo complexity and project performance

Technical complexity has always been considered a factor which affects project performance. Scheduling and other mechanisms have been proposed which allow for the management of these effects. However, the effect of the complexity of interconnections, and in particular those caused by social interfaces and boundaries between the various teams, have not been investigated. Socio-organo complexity is caused by interconnections which if not managed could lead to a reduction in performance. Understanding the characteristics of complexity of interconnections, how these affect project schedule performance and what deductions can be extracted, will enable the development and implementation of innovative actions and tools that will support the management of the effects of complexity through the respective processes. The authors present results of five case studies, with UK construction organisations, which demonstrate that the effects of socio-organo complexity of interconnections have similarities with the behaviour of underdamped control systems. The results from the study have significant implications for the way socio-organisational issues are managed but will also enable parallels to be drawn between the fields of project management and control systems.     

Does project management matter? The relationship between project management effort,complexity, and profitability

The purpose of this study is to explore the causal impact of project management effort on project profitability (i.e., profit on sales) for varying degrees of project complexity in an engineer-to-order (ETO) project setting. We use a sample of 917 projects’ status reports of a large firm that offers ETO products coupled with a control function approach to empirically investigate the causal effect of project management effort on projects’ profitability. Furthermore, we investigate the marginal impact of project management effort and its effect for different degrees of project complexity. Our results reveal a positive but diminishing impact of project management effort on project profitability. Furthermore, we find that higher project complexity jeopardizes project profitability. However, project management's marginal impact increases with increasing project complexity, ultimately leading to higher returns of more complex projects. While previous research provided correlational evidence between project management and project success, this study is, to the best of our knowledge, the first to demonstrate a causal impact of project management on profitability. The results offer unique insights into the economic benefits of project management while taking into account the complexity of the projects. The study confirms the benefits of project management efforts regarding project profitability and underlines the high relevance of project management for complex projects, thereby underlining the importance of contingency theory. It shows that firms can compensate higher ETO customization and higher project complexity through higher project management effort.     

Linking project health to project performance indicators: Multiple case studies of construction projects in Saudi Arabia

This research presents an empirical study of the relationship between project health and project performance in the project delivery context. Based on an existing Project Health Check (PHC) framework, the relationship has been tested in terms of a set of predefined indicators through the use of case study approach. The Swiss Cheese model was employed as a guiding principle to represent the links between PHC indicators and project Key Performance Indicators (KPIs). Three cases of construction projects in Saudi Arabia were investigated through a comprehensive review of the project performance history, using current performance indicators to establish the first slice of the Swiss Cheese model. PHC assessments were then conducted to shape the second slice of the model, which represent the maturity level of the project management. The relationships between the two slices were obtained from semi-structured interviews with the project managers. These relationships were analysed qualitatively by tracking patterns across the three cases. The result was used to develop the Swiss Cheese Performance Management Framework, which can potentially serve to help project managers identify the root causes of any shortcomings at the early stage in the project delivery process. This in turn can assist project managers in managing the overall project performance more effectively.     

The impact of a challenging work environment: Do job stressors benefit citizenship behavior of project managers?

Construction project managers are subjected to high levels of job stressors, while extra-role behavior (e.g., citizenship behavior) is simultaneously required of them. We propose the intervening processes of work-related psychological well-being in the path from job stressors to project citizenship behavior and investigate the moderating effect of leader-member exchange on the link between job stressors and well-being (i.e., work engagement and psychological strain). Consistent and competing hypotheses are proposed by integrating the challenge-hindrance stressor framework and the job demands-resources theory. The conceptual model was examined with time-lagged data collected from 236 construction project managers of owners and contractors. Results confirm that hindrance stressors are “bad” stressors because they positively influence psychological strain, whereas challenge stressors are not “good” stressors as expected because they negatively influence work engagement. Further, both challenge and hindrance stressors have a negative indirect relationship with project citizenship behavior via work engagement and psychological strain, highlighting the value of considering project managers’ well-being. Contrary to expectations, the moderating effect of leader-member exchange is not supported. These findings contribute to the research on occupational stressors and project citizenship behavior, as well as the link between them.     

建设项目承包人履约行为的结构维度与测量研究——基于契约参照点理论

契约参照点理论以合同为参照点给出解释承包人履约行为选择的新逻辑,但受到合同参照点效应影响的承包人履约行为的类型及表现形式尚不明确,亟需厘清承包人履约行为的结构维度并进行量化。首先,借鉴已有的承包人履约行为的测量题项,并对相似概念的测量题项进行情境化处理构建承包人履约行为测量的初始维度和量表。然后,通过273份问卷调查数据定量分析确定了承包人履约行为的最终构成维度和量表。研究表明,建设项目承包人履约行为的构念是由字面履约行为、尽善履约行为和机会主义行为等三维二阶因子构成。其中,字面履约行为是最常见的形式,其次是尽善履约行为;字面履约行为维度包含正确履行、充分完成及达到绩效目标等三个因子;尽善履约行为体现在自愿利他、主动控制风险、协同互助和弥补合同漏洞等四个方面;而机会主义行为由隐瞒信息、未完成承诺、逃避非正式协议和利用合同漏洞等四个子维度构成。该量表开发后,可为建设项目承包人履约行为的研究提供完整分析框架并对建设项目履约管理研究提供技术支持。     

The association among project manager's leadership style, teamwork and project success

This study aims to examine whether the impact of teamwork on project performance was moderated by the following data class variables: industry sector, total installed cost, owner regulation, initial site, team size, complexity, project type, and international involvement. Additionally, this study also investigated the relationships among the project manager's leadership style, teamwork, and project success. To address the primary aims, a questionnaire-based survey was used to measure the project manager's leadership style, teamwork, and project success in terms of schedule performance, cost performance, quality performance, and stakeholder satisfaction. The analyses suggest that increases in levels of leadership may enhance relationships among team members. The results also indicate that teamwork exhibits statistically significant influence on project performance. Finally, the findings suggest that project type has a moderating effect on the relationship between teamwork dimensions and overall project success.     

Particle swarm optimization-based schemes for resource-constrained project scheduling

Particle swarm optimization (PSO) performed through particle flying along the trajectory that will be continuously updated is based to develop a solution-solving scheme for the resource-constrained project scheduling problem (RCPSP). The potential solution to the RCPSP in view of minimizing project duration is represented by the multidimensional particle, where two solution representations, i.e., priority-based representation and permutation-based representation, are respectively considered. The frameworks of the PSOs for the RCPSP according to the two solution representations are developed. Experimental analyses are presented to investigate the performance of the proposed PSO-based methodology, including comparison of the two representations and comparison with other approaches for the RCPSP. The study aims at providing an alternative means for the RCPSP by utilizing the features of PSO, such as particle-updating mechanism that may benefit from the searching experience of one particle itself or the best of all particles in the swarm.     

Relationships between the applications of project management techniques and project characteristics

A summary is provided of the results of an empirical study of relationships between the application of project management techniques and three project characteristics: project size, managerial complexity and level of uncertainty. Structured interviews were conducted with managers of 46 projects of various types. Contingency tables and chi-square statistics tests were used to analyse the relationships. No significant relationships were found between the application of project management techniques and either project uncertainty or managerial complexity. Significant relationships were discovered, however, between the application of some project management techniques and project size as measured by number of personnel involved, total project cost, and project duration.