Wind energy (30%) in the Spanish power mix—technically feasible and economically reasonable

The installed wind power capacity in Spain has grown strongly in recent years. In 2007, wind parks supplied already 10% of the 260 TWh generated electricity. Along that year the installed wind capacity grew by 33.2%, from 11.63 GW in January to 15.5 GW in December. Wind is nowadays the primer renewable power source in Spain, while the public perception of renewables in general is very positive. The issue of the integration of wind power as a fluctuating source into the power grid is gaining priority.     

The use of cost-generation curves for the analysis of wind electricity costs in Spain

The cost of the electricity generated from onshore wind is assessed through a method based on an estimation of the geographical distribution of the technical potential and a cost structure for the estimation of the local unit cost. Generation-cost curves are then employed to portray the evolution of the specific generating cost with the increase of the generated energy, until the limit of the technical potential is reached. The study also relates the energy cost to the land occupancy, the installed power and the capacity factor, and includes an assessment of the interplay between land usage and the cost of wind electricity. An analysis is presented to determine the uncertainty in the costs of the several model parameters. The method is applied to Spain, and allows to establish that, for an electricity-generation level of 300 TW h/y (roughly equal to the overall demand in Spain in 2008), the specific marginal cost is around 8.5 c€/kW h.     

Renewable energy sources in the Egyptian electricity market: A review

This review paper presents an appraisal of renewable energy RE options in Egypt. An appraisal review of different REs is presented. The study shows that electric energy produced from REs in Egypt are very poor compared with other energy sources. The utilization of the renewable energies can also be a good opportunity to fight the desertification and dryness in Egypt which is about 60% of Egypt territory. The rapid growth of energy production and consumption is strongly affecting and being affected by the Egyptian economy in many aspects. It is evident that energy will continue to play an important role in the development of Egypt's economy in coming years. The total installed electricity generating capacity had reached around 22025 MW with a generating capacity reached 22605 MW at the end of 2007. Hydropower and coal has no significant potential increase. During the period 1981/82-2004/05 electricity generation has increased by 500% from nearly 22 TWh for the year 1981/1982 to 108.4 TWh in the year 2004/2005 at an average annual growth rate of 6.9%. Consequently, oil and gas consumed by the electricity sector has jumped during the same period from around 3.7 MTOE to nearly 21 MTOE. The planned installed capacity for the year 2011/2012 is 28813 MW and the required fuel (oil and gas) for the electricity sector is estimated to reach about 29 MTOE by the same year. The renewable energy strategy targets to supply 3% of the electricity production from renewable resources by the year 2010. Electrical Coverage Electrical energy has been provided for around 99.3% of Egypt's population, representing a positive sign for the welfare of the Egyptian citizen due to electricity relation to all development components in all walks of life. The article discusses perspectives of wind energy in Egypt with projections to generate ∼ 3.5 GWe by 2022, representing ∼9% of the total installed power at that time (40.2 GW). Total renewables (hydro + wind + solar) are expected to provide ∼7.4 GWe by 2022 representing ∼ 19% of the total installed power. Such a share would reduce dependence on depleting oil and gas resources, and hence improve country's sustainable development.     

IEEE Power Engineering Review

France appears to have the second largest wind energy potential in Europe, after the United Kingdom. According to certain estimates the potential annual production is evaluated at 70 TWh on the land and more than 90 TWh for offshore sites located in an area along the coast, with a maximum width of 10 km and where the sea depth is less than 10 m. This potential production of more than 160 TWh represents approximately 33% of the present electricity generation in France. However, the wind energy potential that will actually be exploitable will be noticeably lower. This paper describes the EOLE 2005 Program, a French national program for the promotion of wind power, launched in February 1996. The targets and incentive measures for wind power development are discussed. The grid connection of wind farms and offshore wind energy are also discussed.     

Fossil fuel reduction potential in Germany's transport sector by wind-to-hydrogen

Wind-to-hydrogen (WH) is a promising option for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector. Therefore, the reduction potential of fossil fuels by WH was estimated taking meteorological, geographical, and technical constraints into account. The wind resource estimation is based on the application of the high-resolution (200 m × 200 m) wind speed-wind shear model (WSWS). Together with the power curves of the six most frequently installed wind turbines in 2017, WSWS was used to assess Germany's technical wind energy potential. The WH and fossil fuel reduction potentials were calculated based on proton exchange membrane electrolysis. Results from the wind resource assessment demonstrate that in addition to the currently realized wind energy (89 TWh/yr in 2017), which is directly used for electricity generation, Germany's technical onshore potential for WH is 780 TWh/yr. This amount of renewable energy available for WH could replace 80.1% of the fossil fuels currently used in the transport sector.     

A data‐driven approach to study the role of interconnectors in a future low‐carbon electricity supply system

This paper investigates the potential role of the electricity interconnectors in improving the security of supply in Great Britain (GB) in 2030. Real electricity demand and price data for GB and France in 2016 were used to understand the relationship between power exchange between the two countries and their wholesale electricity prices. A linear programming optimisation model was developed to find the economic power dispatch. Two interconnection links were considered; two‐way trade interconnector with a capacity of 5.4 GW and a 12.3 GW import‐only interconnector between GB and other states. The GB–France link transmits electricity from cheaper system to the more expensive one. The total electricity demand in 2030 will be 406 TWh. Gas‐fired power plants w/wo CCS will provide 83 TWh of the total electricity demand, whereas nuclear power plants will produce 74 TWh. In addition, wind farms and solar PVs are expected to deliver ~120 TWh electricity. CHP units will provide 88 TWh electricity in 2030. The electricity traded between GB and France in 2030 was found to be 33 TWh, which is 160% larger compared with 2016. The power import from France is about 27 TWh and occurs in 59% of the time. For 64% of the time, the interconnector with France is fully loaded. The electricity imported via the 12.3 GW interconnector in 2030 is 1 TWh and mainly occurs during winter‐time when the demand in GB is high. De‐rated capacity margin was calculated based on instantaneous electricity demand and varies between ?2% and 139%. The impact of the price of the imported electricity via the 12.3 GW link was investigated. Increasing the price of the imported electricity via the 12.3 GW link results in a higher capacity factor for all the generation options except the 12.3 GW interconnector link.     

Foresight analysis of wind power in Turkey

The Turkish wind energy industry is one of the most competitive and fastest growing industries in the energy sector. Industrial energy demands, Kyoto agreement and carbon trade are shown as probable causes. Currently, Turkey has a total installed capacity of about 48.5 GW for electricity from all energy sources. High energy prices and unstable suppliers have stimulated Turkey's growing interest in wind business and wind power. This paper analyzes Turkey's wind energy future perspective and power generation strategy with a view to explaining Delphi approach to wind energy development. In this study, the two‐round Delphi survey was conducted by experts to determine and measure the expectations of the sector representatives through online surveys where a total of 70 experts responded from 24 different locations. The majority of the Delphi survey respondents were from 23 different universities (60%), electricity generation industries (21%), two different governmental organizations (11%), nongovernmental organizations (6%) and other institutions (2%). The article discusses not only the expert sights on wind energy technology but also all bibliometrical approaches. The results showed that Turkey's wind power installed capacity is expected to exceed 40 GW by the end of the 2020 s and in the middle of the 2030 s, and Turkey would be the European leading country in the field of electricity generation from the wind. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Prospects of renewable energy utilisation for electricity generation in Bangladesh

Bangladesh has been facing a power crisis for about a decade, mainly because of inadequate power generation capacity compared with demand and the ageing infrastructure of many existing power generation facilities. Only 20% of the total population are connected to grid electricity—25% in urban areas and a mere 10% in rural areas where 80% of the total population resides. Currently, most power plants in Bangladesh (representing 84.5% of the total installed capacity) use natural gas—the main commercial primary energy source, with limited national reserves—as a fuel. Electricity supply to low-load rural and remote areas is characterised by high transmission and distribution costs and transmission losses, and heavily subsidised pricing.Renewable energy sources in Bangladesh, particularly biomass, can play a major role to meet electricity demands in the rural and remote areas of the country. The current study indicates that in 2003, the national total generation and recovery rates of biomass in Bangladesh were 148.983 and 86.276 Mtonne, respectively. In energy term, the national annual amount of the recoverable biomass is equivalent to 312.613 TWh. Considering the present national consumption of biomass, total available biomass resources potential for electricity generation vary from 183.865 to 223.794 TWh. Biomass energy potential in the individual districts of the country has been estimated for the planning small- to medium-scale biomass-to-electricity plants.     

Exploring the potential of wind energy for a coastal state

Adequate recognition of the wind energy potential of coastal states may have far-reaching effects on the development of the energy systems of these countries. This study evaluates wind energy resources in Taiwan with the aid of a geographic information system (GIS), which allows local potentials and restrictions such as climate conditions, land uses, and ecological environments to be considered. The findings unveiled in this study suggest a significant role for offshore wind energy resources, which may constitute between 94% and 98% of overall wind resources in Taiwan. Total power yield from wind energy could reach between 150 and 165 TWh, which would have, respectively, accounted for between 62% and 68% of Taiwan's total power generation of 243 TWh in 2007. Based on the Taiwan's current emission factor of electricity, wind energy has the potential to reduce CO₂ emissions by between 94 and 102 million ton per year in Taiwan, which is, respectively, equivalent to 28% and 31% of the national net equivalent CO₂ emissions released in 2002. However, the challenge of managing the variability of wind power has to be addressed before the considerable contribution of wind energy to domestic energy supply and CO₂ reduction can be realized.     

High resolution wind atlas for Nakhon Si Thammarat and Songkhla provinces,Thailand

In this work, a high resolution wind atlas for Nakhon Si Thammarat and Songkhla provinces in southern Thailand was developed using combined mesoscale, MC2, and microscale, MsMicro, modeling techniques. The model inputs consist of long-term statistical climate data, i.e. the NCEP/NCAR database, high resolution topography and land cover data. The 200 m resolution wind resource maps were validated with observed mean wind speeds from 10 met stations located along the coastlines of the territory studied. These comparisons have shown that the wind atlas provides a good representation of the wind resource throughout the territory of Nakhon Si Thammarat and Songkhla provinces, Thailand. The technical power potential and potential annual energy production are then identified. Results from the technical power potential at 80 m above ground level show that a total of 1374 MW of wind farms, generating annually 3.6 TWh of electricity, could be installed; while 407 MW of small wind turbines (50 kW), generating annually 1.0 TWh of electricity, could be installed.     

Offshore transmission for wind: Comparing the economic benefits of different offshore network configurations

It has been argued that increasing transmission network capacity is vital to ensuring the full utilisation of renewables in Europe. The significant wind generation capacity proposed for the North Sea combined with high penetrations of other intermittent renewables across Europe has raised interest in different approaches to connecting offshore wind that might also increase interconnectivity between regions in a cost effective way. These analyses to assess a number of putative North Sea networks confirm that greater interconnection capacity between regions increases the utilisation of offshore wind energy, reducing curtailed wind energy by up to 9 TWh in 2030 based on 61 GW of installed capacity, and facilitating a reduction in annual generation costs of more than €0.5bn. However, at 2013 fuel and carbon prices, such additional network capacity allows cheaper high carbon generation to displace more expensive lower carbon plant, increasing coal generation by as much as 24 TWh and thereby increasing CO₂ emissions. The results are sensitive to the generation “merit order” and a sufficiently high carbon price would yield up to a 28% decrease in emissions depending on the network case. It is inferred that carbon pricing may impact not only generation investment but also the benefits associated with network development.     

Model‐based approach for planning renewable energy transition in a resource‐constrained electricity system—A case study from India

Globally, electricity systems are going through transitions. The contributions from renewable energy‐based power generation, both in installed capacity and electricity generation, are moving from marginal to the mainstream. India is not an exception; it is aggressively pursuing this transition by fixing steep targets for renewable capacity additions. While the cost of renewable energy sources is expected to fast reach grid parity, the policy interventions play a critical role in ramping up the efforts to support the proposed investments in renewable capacity and renewable electricity generation. In this respect, this research attempts to analyze the effectiveness of renewable energy policies such as Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) and Renewable Energy Certificate mechanisms in tapping the renewable energy potential in India. We propose a mixed‐integer linear programming model‐based approach to evaluate the effectiveness of the above interventions in the Indian context. The model is developed and validated as a low carbon electricity planning tool to optimally meet the dynamic electricity demand and RPO targets as well as to manage the unmet total electricity demand and RPO targets. The Karnataka state electricity system (a state in south India) is chosen as a case study. The results suggest that Karnataka Electricity System is moving toward a sustainable renewable energy future even without any support from nonsolar Renewable Energy Certificate policy. However, policy interventions are critical for optimally utilizing the solar generation capacity.     

Optimizing 100%‐renewable grids through shifting residential water‐heater load

A low‐carbon electricity supply for Australia was simulated, and the installed capacity of the electrical grid was optimized by shifting the electricity demand of residential electric water heaters (EWHs). The load‐shifting potential of Australia was estimated for each hour of the simulation period using a nationwide aggregate EWH load model on a 90 × 110 raster grid. The electricity demand of water heaters was shifted from periods of low renewable resource and high demand to periods of high renewable resource and low demand, enabling us to effectively reduce the installed capacity requirements of a 100%‐renewable electricity grid. It was found that by shifting the EWH load by just 1 hour, the electricity demand of Australia could be met using purely renewable electricity at an installed capacity of 145 GW with a capacity factor of 30%, an electricity spillage of 20%, and a generation cost of 15.2 ¢/kWh. A breakdown of the primary energy sources used in our scenario is as follows: 43% wind, 29% concentrated solar thermal power, and 20% utility photovoltaic. Sensitivity analysis suggested that further reduction in installed capacity is possible by increasing the load‐shifting duration as well as the volume and insulation level of the EWH tank.     

Forecast study of the supply curve of solar and wind technologies in Argentina,Brazil, Chile and Mexico

This paper forecasts the supply curve of non-conventional renewable technologies such as wind and solar generating stations in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Mexico using technological and economic parameters. It also estimates the additional investment costs in solar and wind generation for reaching the renewable energy target in each of these countries. To assess the power supply profile from 1 axis tracking PV and horizontal axis wind turbine (three blade) stations, two different scenarios are developed for 2014 and 2025. Scenario 1 estimates the PV and wind annual electricity yield by using polycrystalline silicon (cSi poly) as semiconductor material for PV cells and a Vestas 90–3.0 MW turbine for the wind for 2014.Scenario 2 assumes a more efficient technology, such as CPV. In fact, the model employs 45% efficiency triple junction cells using ∼3500 m2 for each 1 MW installed capacity in 2025. Moreover, this scenario also assumes a more powerful type of turbine, i.e. Vestas 112–3.075 MW. The biggest potential for wind power is found to be in Argentina, followed by Brazil, Mexico and Chile. In addition, a 550 MW installed capacity CPV power station, using triple junction cells could generate up to 4 TWh in Chile in 2025.     

Regulating the output characteristics of tidal current power stations to facilitate better base load matching over the lunar cycle

To meet rising targets for renewable-derived electricity generation, wind power is currently the preferred technology. However, it is widely accepted that due to the stochastic nature of wind, planning restrictions and the finite availability of suitable sites there is an upper limit to the capacity that can be accommodated within the electricity network before power quality is affected. This paper demonstrates the potential of tidal energy to provide firm power and shows that limiting the capacity of the power generated provides base load supply without compromising power quality. This increases the capacity factor of the installed system, thus improving the economic viability and commercial competitiveness of tidal farms.     

A 100% renewable electricity generation system for New Zealand utilising hydro,wind, geothermal and biomass resources

The New Zealand electricity generation system is dominated by hydro generation at approximately 60% of installed capacity between 2005 and 2007, augmented with approximately 32% fossil-fuelled generation, plus minor contributions from geothermal, wind and biomass resources. In order to explore the potential for a 100% renewable electricity generation system with substantially increased levels of wind penetration, fossil-fuelled electricity production was removed from an historic 3-year data set, and replaced by modelled electricity production from wind, geothermal and additional peaking options. Generation mixes comprising 53–60% hydro, 22–25% wind, 12–14% geothermal, 1% biomass and 0–12% additional peaking generation were found to be feasible on an energy and power basis, whilst maintaining net hydro storage. Wind capacity credits ranged from 47% to 105% depending upon the incorporation of demand management, and the manner of operation of the hydro system. Wind spillage was minimised, however, a degree of residual spillage was considered to be an inevitable part of incorporating non-dispatchable generation into a stand-alone grid system. Load shifting was shown to have considerable advantages over installation of new peaking plant. Application of the approach applied in this research to countries with different energy resource mixes is discussed, and options for further research are outlined.     

Offshore wind development in China and its future with the existing renewable policy

Based on independent studies, this paper focuses on the significant discrepancy of 15 GW between the installed onshore wind generation capacity and what has been actually connected to the power network to reveal the challenges in meeting the Chinese renewable energy target. The recent accidents in Chinese North-Western transmission network (in February–April, 2011) demonstrated the urgent need for a fundamental review of the Chinese renewable energy policy. Offshore wind has been identified as the most feasible alternative to onshore wind to help deliver electricity to Eastern China during the summer peak time. By investigating and summarizing first hand experiences of participation in the Chinese renewable market, the authors provide the economic figures of the first cohort of Chinese offshore wind schemes. Large state owned enterprises (SOE) are dominating the offshore wind development, repeating their previous practices on the land. While this paper acknowledges the critical role of offshore wind generation in meeting Chinese renewable energy targets, it envisages an installed offshore capacity of approximately 2000 MW by 2015, much less than the 10000 MW governmental estimation, which can be attributed to the lack of detailed energy policy, network constraints, offshore wind installation difficulties and quality issues in the manufacture of turbines.     

欧盟可再生能源发展形势和2020年发展战略目标分析

2010年,欧盟可再生能源发展呈现出新的形势:一方面,风电满足了欧盟5.3%的电力需求,已经开始发挥替代能源的战略作用;另一方面,光伏发电新增装机容量首次超过风电,显示出分布式光伏发电的巨大优势。在欧盟可再生能源"20-20-20"发展目标的基础上,欧盟各成员国相继制定了具有法律效力的国家可再生能源行动方案,规定了各国在不同时期的可再生能源的发展目标和实现路径。     

Exploring the hypothetical limits to a nuclear and renewable electricity future

This article evaluates whether the world can transition to a future global electricity system powered entirely by nuclear power plants, wind turbines, solar panels, geothermal facilities, hydroelectric stations, and biomass generators by 2030. It begins by explaining the scenario method employed for predicting future electricity generation, drawn mostly from tools used by the International Energy Agency. The article projects that the world would need to build about 7744 Gigawatts (GW) of installed electricity capacity by 2030 to provide 37.2 thousand terawatt‐hours (TWh). Synthesizing data from the primary literature, the article argues that meeting such a projection with nuclear and renewable power stations will be difficult. If constructed using commercially available and state‐of‐the‐art nuclear and renewable power stations today, the capital cost would exceed $40 trillion, anticipated negative externalities would exceed $1 trillion per year, and immense strain would be placed on land, water, material, and human resources. Even if nuclear and renewable power technologies were much improved, trillions of dollars of investment would still be needed, millions of hectares of land set aside, quadrillions of gallons of water used, and material supplies of aluminum, concrete, silicon, and steel heavily utilized or exhausted. Because of these constraints, the only true path towards a more sustainable electricity system appears to be reducing demand for electricity and consuming less of it. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Resource potential for wind-hydrogen power in Ukraine

The paper provides an assessment of the current wind energy potential in Ukraine, and discusses developmental prospects for wind-hydrogen power generation in the country. Hydrogen utilization is a highly promising option for Ukraine's energy system, environment, and business. In Ukraine, an optimal way towards clean zero-carbon energy production is through the development of the wind-hydrogen sector. In order to make it possible, the energy potential of industrial hydrogen production and use has to be studied thoroughly.Ukraine possesses huge resources for wind energy supply. At the beginning of 2020, the total installed capacity of Ukrainian wind farms was 1.17 GW. Wind power generation in Ukraine has significant advantages in comparison to the use of traditional sources such as thermal and nuclear energy.In this work, an assessment of the wind resource potential in Ukraine is made via the geographical approach suggested by the authors, and according to the «Methodical guidelines for the assessment of average annual power generation by a wind turbine based on the long-term wind speed observation data». The paper analyses the long-term dynamics of average annual wind speed at 40 Ukrainian weather stations that provide valid data. The parameter for the vertical wind profile model is calculated based on the data reanalysis for 10 m and 50 m altitudes. The capacity factor (CF) for modern wind turbine generators is determined. The CF spatial distribution for an average 3 MW wind turbine and the power generation potential for the wind power plants across the territory of Ukraine are mapped.Based on the wind energy potential assessment, the equivalent possible production of water electrolysis-derived green hydrogen is estimated. The potential average annual production of green hydrogen across the territory of Ukraine is mapped.It is concluded that Ukraine can potentially establish wind power plants with a total capacity of 688 GW on its territory. The average annual electricity production of this system is supposed to reach up to 2174 bln kWh. Thus, it can provide an average annual production of 483 billion Nm³ (43 million tons) of green hydrogen by electrolysis. The social efficiency of investments in wind-hydrogen electricity is presented.