Affordances, codes, and decision processes: A response to Michaels (1993).

In her commentary on R. W. Proctor et al (see record 1993-20228-001), C. F. Michaels (see record 1994-08287-001) claimed to have demonstrated a destination compatibility effect that cannot be attributed to relative direction coding. She also argued that the concept of "affordance" compatibility is needed to supplement the concept of "coding" compatibility to explain differences in the ease with which people can respond to compatible assignments for different stimulus and response sets. Neither of these assertions is supported by existing evidence. The destination compatibility effect, as well as most other stimulus–response compatibility phenomena, can be attributed to decision processes that operate on stimulus and response codes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concerning dual-coding and simultaneous-successive processing.

Replies to J. R. Kirby and J. P. Das's (see PA, Vol 59:0000) criticisms of the author's (see record 1976-02530-001) imagery theory and views of dual coding research. It is argued that their criticisms serve only to confirm and extend misconceptions of dual coding theory such as alleged distinctions between that approach and simultaneous successive processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Potential power of coding particular experiences: Reply to Mathews and Roussel (1993).

R. C. Mathews and L. G. Roussel (see record 1993-44092-001) argued that it is more fruitful to understand memory as a "conceptualizer," which enables the organism to interact efficiently with its environment, than as a simple "warehouse" for storing the details of past experience. The authors completely agree. However, Mathews and Roussel believe that the human capacity to acquire sensitivity to general properties of the environment requires a memory system that chronically abstracts regular aspects of the general structure of experience. It is argued that such abstraction is unnecessary. Instead, encoding particular experiences of encountering the members of a domain accidentally makes memory sensitive to the general structure of that domain. In effect, simply coding particular experiences grants memory the potential to interact efficiently with complex and unanticipated aspects of its environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When selective adaptation and contrast effects are distinct: A reply to Diehl, Kluender, and Parker.

Two alternative conceptualizations of selective adaptation with speech have recently received attention: the adaptation level theory (AL) outlined by R. L. Diehl (see record 1981-05067-001) and a 2-stage model outlined by the 1st author and P. Jusczyk (see record 1982-00351-001). Diehl et al (see record 1986-05428-001) reported evidence of streaming in selective adaptation and claimed that their results provide a counterdemonstration to recent studies that have argued against the AL approach. It is shown how the Diehl et al results can be accounted for by both the 2-stage model and AL theory. Results are presented from a study with 74 undergraduates that compared adaptation and paired-comparison procedures. These results are precisely as predicted by the 2-stage model, but they cannot be accounted for by AL theory. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rehabilitation services as ideology: A response to Stubbins, Coudroglou, and Berkowitz.

Responds to the comments of J. Stubbins (see record 1985-31779-001), A. Coudroglou (see record 1985-31754-001), and E. Berkowitz (see record 1985-31749-001) on needed reforms of the rehabilitation service system. With emphasis on Stubbins's comments, it is argued that Stubbins makes sweeping unsupported generalizations and that he overlooks the strengths derived from the legislative process, the disability rights movement, and rehabilitation research. Although reform is needed, it is suggested that it will come through informed inquiry and a changing environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Abstractness of implicit grammar knowledge: Comments on Perruchet and Pacteau's analysis of synthetic grammar learning.

On the basis of 3 experiments, P. Perruchet and C. Pacteau (see record 1991-00329-001) argued that implicitly acquired knowledge of a synthetic grammar consists of little more than knowledge of pairwise associations between pairs of letters in the grammar. By comparing their results with a study by R. C. Mathews et al (see record 1990-03549-001), it is argued that (a) implicitly acquired knowledge is much richer and more abstract than suggested by Perruchet and Pacteau, (b) their recognition measures are less sensitive than the recall measures of Mathews et al for detecting conscious awareness of implicit knowledge, and (c) fragmentary knowledge of a grammar constitutes abstract rules that enable performance of complex tasks when integrated into a system for combining knowledge across rules. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rational explanation of the selection task.

M. Oaksford and N. Chater (O&C, see record 1995-08271-001) presented the first quantitative model of R C. Wason's (1966) selection task in which performance is rational. J. St. B. T. Evans and D. E. Over (see record 83:25190) reply that O&C's account is normatively incorrect and cannot model K. N. Kirby's (see record 1995-04302-001) or R Pollard and J. St. B. T. Evans's (see record 1984-30572-001) data. It is argued that an equivalent measure satisfies their normative concerns and that a modification of O&C's model accounts for their empirical concerns. D. Laming (see record 83:25220) argues that O&C made unjustifiable psychological assumptions and that a "correct" Bayesian analysis agrees with logic. It is argued that O&C's model makes normative and psychological sense and that Laming's analysis is not Bayesian. A. Almor and S. A. Sloman (see record 83:25168) argue that O&C cannot explain their data. It is argued that Almor and Sloman's data do not bear on O&C's model because they alter the nature of the task. It is concluded that O&C's model remains the most compelling and comprehensive account of the selection task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reassessing the automaticity–control distinction: Item recognition as a paradigm case.

Reviews the automaticity–control distinction as formalized by W. Schneider and R. M. Shiffrin (see record 1977-20305-001) and Shiffrin and Schneider (see record 1977-24785-001) in the development of what they saw to be a new and independent theory of human information processing. It is argued that virtually every defining attribute of the 2 operations, as specified, is violated by extant item-recognition data. As defined, the terms of their "theory" turn out trivially to redescribe the well-established fact that human performance is load-dependent in some cases and relatively load-independent in others. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning-forgetting rate independence defined by forgetting function parameters or forgetting function form: Reply to Loftus and Bamber and to Wixted.

This article is a reply to the comments of G. R. Loftus and D. Bamber (see record 1991-06492-001) and J. T. Wixted (see record 1991-06505-001) on a recent article of mine (R. S. Bogartz, see record 1990-09037-001). Various errors and misunderstandings of my approach in those comments are corrected and clarified. It is argued that the question of whether or not forgetting rate depends on the amount of initial learning is best answered by first providing a theoretical definition of forgetting, specifying a forgetting function, defining a rate of forgetting in terms of that function, and then determining whether the initial level of learning appears as a parameter influencing the value of the rate of forgetting. This view opposes that of Loftus and Bamber, who define the learning–forgetting rate issue in terms of the form of the forgetting function itself, and maintain that forgetting rate is independent of rate of learning only if the retention function is a monotone transformation of an exponential function. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Separate features versus one principle: Comment on Shimaya (1997).

In his article "Perception of Complex Line Drawings," A. Shimaya (see record 1997-02284-003) proposed a quantitative theory that was designed to predict perceived segmentations and amodal completions of line drawings. Shimaya further evaluated the integrative approach of structural information theory (SIT; R. Van Lier, P. Van der Helm, & E. Leeuwenberg, [see record 1995-23971-001]) to pattern interpretation. It is argued in this comment that Shimaya's evaluation of the SIT approach is based on a misconception of SITs basic assumptions and an inappropriate data analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is free will a process or a content: Both? Neither? Are we free to affirm a position on this question?

Comments on the views on free will (FW) offered by B. D. Slife (see record 1995-13451-001), M. Gergen (see record 1995-14294-001), R. N. Williams (see record 1995-12851-001), M. S. Richardson (see record 1995-14311-001), and G. S. Howard (see record 1995-13446-001) in light of the classical definition of FW as being capable of doing otherwise. It is argued that FW interpretations differ markedly depending on whether they are viewed as due to a process or to contents within some process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The primacy of affect.

Comments on the dispute between R. Zajonc (see record 1984-30610-001) and R. Lazarus (see record 1984-30606-001) over the primacy of affect, noting that one difference between them seems to involve the underlying model of causality. Zajonc may have assumed a linear model, Lazarus a nonlinear one. It is argued that this issue is connected to another—whether affect can be the actual cause of behavior. Based on previous research by others and the present author's behavioral observations of "Candid Camera" episodes, it is suggested that affective reactions may, under certain conditions, have a causal status equivalent to that of behavior and cognition. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The issue of sex bias in DSM-III: Comments on the articles by Spitzer, Williams, and Kass.

Responds to comments by J. B. Williams and R. L. Spitzer (see record 1984-06864-001) and by F. Kass et al (see record 1984-06848-001) on the present author's (see record 1984-06847-001) article, in which she argued that masculine-biased assumptions about what behaviors are healthy are codified in diagnostic criteria and may account for higher treatment rates in women. The present author responds to criticisms and reiterates her point that histrionic and dependent personality disorders as defined by the DSM-III correspond to stereotypes of femininity. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Just as arbitrary as ever: Comments on Zuckerman's rejoinder.

Responds to M. Zuckerman's (see record 1984-00261-001) comment on the authors' (see record 1982-09834-001) paper that argued that trait–state distinctions are arbitrary. It is concluded that without the state–trait distinction, psychologists would be free to use whatever measure "works best" for a given task and thus, state–trait labels for methods of measurement would no longer act as prohibitions against the use of the methods wherever these might provide successful prediction. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analyzing meta-analysis: Potential problems, an unsuccessful replication, and evaluation criteria.

Used the criteria reported by D. E. Terpstra (see record 1982-04524-001) in his study of methodological vigor in organization development evaluation research to select 90 studies, 1965–1980, for inclusion in a replication. Using the published coding scheme, the authors independently scored the 1st half-period, 1965–1972. Results show no evidence of positive-findings bias in organization development evaluation research, failing to support Terpstra's conclusion. There were differences in sample size and difficulties in coding variables. It is suggested that without a clear distinction between mixed and uniform, the coding of the research became a matter of subjective judgment. Two key decision areas of meta-analysis that may be affected by subjective biases are the coding of results and the decision rules used to code study characteristics. After a discussion of potential meta-analysis problems, 14 criteria for evaluating meta-analysis research are given. Standards include using a theoretical model, identifying the domain, including all publicly available studies, publishing a list of studies used, providing documentation of the theoretically based coding scheme, using multiple raters, and limiting generalization to the domain specified. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Erratum to Reid and Patterson.

Reports an error in the comment, "Follow-up Analyses of a Behavioral Treatment Program for Boys with Conduct Problems: A Reply to Kent" by John B. Reid and Gerald R. Patterson (Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1976, Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 299-302). The numbers in Table 1 on page 301 were presented incorrectly. The corrected table is provided. (The following abstract originally appeared in the article, see record 1976-30343-001) Replies to R. Kent (see PA, Vol 56:Issue 6) who criticized G. R. Patterson's (see record 1974-32972-001) findings in a study of 27 conduct problem boys. It is argued that Kent's point that only 59% of the original group was available for follow-up evaluation is inaccurate: substantial follow-up data were available for 20 Ss, or 74% of the sample. It is also pointed out that Kent failed to test for a differential response to treatment as a function of initial levels of total deviant behavior. Further, since Kent argued that Patterson's persistence effects were inflated by the inclusion of Ss who were "normal" before treatment, he should have also discarded those Ss and reanalyzed the data for persistence. For the 9 Ss left for this analysis, it is noted that a highly significant persistence effect can be obtained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compounding the errors: A reply to Pollak and Gilligan.

Responds to a rebuttal by S. Pollak and C. Gilligan (see record 1984-12283-001) of the present authors' (see record 1984-12235-001) criticisms of Pollak and Gilligan's (see record 1982-23594-001) study of males and females' violent TAT responses. In addition to not addressing the prior criticisms, it is argued that Pollak and Gilligan introduce 3 new sources of errors regarding their misunderstanding of experimental replication, fantasy classification, and statistical inference. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some problems created by Holt's consistency: A rejoinder.

Replies to R. R. Holt's (see record 1992-27289-001) critique of S. Reisner's (see record 1992-16438-001) article on metapsychology and suggests that the critique is based on fundamental differences in approaches to Freud's studies and their relevance to contemporary psychoanalytic theory and practice. It is argued that Holt underemphasizes the relational, hermeneutic, and epistemological components of Freud's theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Yes, I have heard about family psychotherapy—but opinions are no substitute for data.

E. Rudolph (see record 1982-26266-001) criticized an article by the present author (see record 1981-33210-001), saying that the existence and impact of family therapy was omitted from a review of the claims and progress of psychotherapy. It is argued that Rudolph's claim that family therapy represented a significant breakthrough in psychotherapy is unsupported by research data and that overall results of outcome in family therapy appear to be comparable to those for individual psychotherapy. Results of a study by S. L. Garfield and R. Kurtz (see record 1976-24639-001) show relatively little involvement of clinical psychologists with family therapy in terms of time devoted to professional activities. (4 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)