Dissociating knowing and the feeling of knowing: Further evidence for the accessibility model.

Predictions derived from the accessibility model of the feeling of knowing (FOK; A. Koriat, 1993) were tested regarding the basis of FOK and the reason for its accuracy. According to the model, FOK monitors the accessibility of partial information about unrecallable targets, and its validity depends on the accuracy of that information. General knowledge questions were classified in terms of their tendency to precipitate answers in recall (accessibility, or ACC), and the proportion of such answers that were correct (output-bound accuracy, or OBA). FOK increased with increasing ACC independent of actual recognition memory, and the FOK recognition correlation varied dramatically with OBA: It was positive for high-OBA questions, but nil or negative for low-OBA questions. The results suggest that people have no privileged access to the contents of their memory over and above what they can retrieve from it. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Organization versus item effects of an elaborated knowledge base on children's memory.

Investigated the extent to which the high levels of recall and organization observed when children are asked to recall their classmates' names (class recall) can be attributed to organizational vs item-specific effects. Ss were 109 1st, 3rd, and 5th graders. Levels of clustering in class recall were elevated when Ss were constrained to recall their classmates' names according to specific organizational schemes (either sex or seating arrangement). However, there was no evidence that changes in levels or styles of organization influenced levels of memory performance or which names were recalled. Results indicate that some of the benefits on memory of an elaborated knowledge base cannot be attributed to differences in organization (either strategic or automatic) but rather are due to differences in the ease with which individual items can be retrieved. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confidence level and feeling of knowing for episodic and semantic memory: an investigation of lorazepam effects on metamemory

The effects of lorazepam (0.026 or 0.038 mg/kg), a benzodiazepine, and of a placebo on metamemory, i.e. knowledge about one's own memory capabilities, were investigated in 36 healthy volunteers. Accuracy of confidence levels (CL) in the correctness of recalled answers and accuracy of feeling of knowing (FOK) the answers when recall fails were measured using a sentence memory task assessing episodic memory and a task consisting of general information questions and assessing semantic memory. Lorazepam impaired episodic memory. Unexpectedly, it also impaired performance in both the recall and recognition phases of the task assessing semantic memory, suggesting that it decreased the ability to distinguish between correct and incorrect information. In episodic memory, lorazepam 0.038 mg/kg-treated subjects exhibited an impaired CL accuracy, compared to placebo-treated subjects, and their FOK accuracy was at chance. In semantic memory, their overall CL and FOK accuracy was apparently spared. However, these subjects selectively overestimated their CL judgements for incorrect answers; moreover, secondary analyses showed that FOK accuracy for a subset of low-accuracy items was virtually nil. These results suggest that lorazepam impairs metamemory for both episodic and semantic memory.     

Context effects on examinations: The effects of time, item order and item difficulty.

Tested the effects of contextual factors, i.e., time, item, chapter, and difficulty arrangement, on test performance. In Exp 1, an advantage for students writing a quiz in the early and middle testing periods was found for an afternoon group; however, early testing, compared to middle and late testing, was a disadvantage for an evening group writing the same quiz. Exp 2 found that neither chapter retrieval cues nor sequenced chapter content order affected exam performance; exam items forward-sequenced with text coverage yielded no advantage over those items that were reverse- or random-sequenced. Exp 3 manipulated both chapter order and within-chapter item order so that exam items in any chapter were not sequenced in the same order as text coverage. There was no advantage to receiving exam questions in one sequence over another. In Exp 4, item arrangement was manipulated according to difficulty level (easy-to-hard, hard-to-easy, and random order). No effect on performance for order of item difficulty was found. Results indicate that contextual factors like time have an effect on overall performance; however, other factors, such as item, chapter and difficulty arrangements, have little or no effect on overall performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult age differences in predicting memory performance: The effects of normative information and task experience.

Two experiments addressed the effects of task information and experience on younger and older adults' ability to predict their memory for words. The 1st study, which involved 36 women (aged 20–30 yrs) and 36 women (aged 65–75 yrs), examined the effects of normative task information on Ss' predictions for 30-word lists across 3 trials. The 2nd study, which involved 2 groups of men and women (128 Ss total; aged 19–30 yrs and 54–77 yrs), examined the effects of making predictions and recalling either an easy or a difficult word list prior to making predictions and recalling a moderately difficult word list. Results from both studies showed that task information and experience affected Ss' predictions and that elderly adults predicted their performance more accurately than did younger adults. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Confidence level and feeling of knowing in question answering: The weight of inferential processes.

What are the sources of metamemory judgments in question answering? Exp 1 showed that the level of confidence in the correctness of a recalled answer (CL) is a reliable measure (test–retest G?=?.87) and a valid predictor of recognition (G?=?.55/.58). In contrast, the feeling of knowing the correct answer (FOK), although reliable (G?=?.82), is a poor predictor of recognition (G?=?.11). In Exp 2 it was discovered that FOK levels are more highly correlated with beliefs about what should be known than are CL judgments. Controlling for the relationship between FOK and those beliefs eliminates any correlation between FOK and recognition (G drops from .27 to .08), which is not the case with CL (G remains as high as .52). These data suggest that CL is based on the retrieval of at least some elements of the right answer, whereas FOK may be derived from recency or familiarity effects elicited by the question itself. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Domain-specific knowledge and memory performance: A comparison of high- and low-aptitude children.

Two studies compared memory performance and text comprehension of groups that were equivalent on domain-specific knowledge but differed in overall aptitude, to investigate whether prior knowledge about a particular domain or overall aptitude level was more important when the task was to acquire and use new information in the domain of interest. Both studies dealt with third-, fifth-, and seventh-grade soccer experts' and novices' memory and comprehension of a story dealing with a soccer game. Several measures of memory performance, memory monitoring, and text comprehension were used. Levels of soccer knowledge and of overall aptitude were varied in a factorial design. Neither study detected significant differences between high-aptitude and low-aptitude experts, regardless of their ages. Low aptitude experts outperformed high-aptitude novices on all memory and comprehension measures. The results indicate that domain-specific knowledge can compensate for low overall aptitude on domain-related cognitive tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of sex stereotypes on children's exploration and memory: A competence versus performance distinction.

25 girls and 31 boys (aged 4–9 yrs) were presented with novel objects in 3 sex-labeled boxes and were given 6 min to explore the objects. Memory for information about the objects was tested 1 wk later. Results show that Ss tactually explored novel objects labeled for their own sex more than similar objects labeled for the other sex and remembered more detailed information about own-sex than other-sex objects. Furthermore, regardless of labeling condition, Ss recalled the sex-typed label applied by the experimenter to each object. As expected from the C. L. Martin and C. F. Halverson, Jr. (see record 1982-05576-001) schematic processing model, an incentive to remember did not improve recall in any labeling condition. The sex-typed labeling effects on exploration occurred primarily among the older children, whereas the effects on recall appeared among the younger and older boys and the younger girls. The results suggest that sex stereotypes restrict children's behavior by limiting their competence rather than their performance. Findings are discussed in relation to an earlier study by the 1st author and R. C. Endsley (see record 1983-32397-001). (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship between memory and metamemory performance: A comparison of specific and general strategy knowledge.

Examines (1) age and skill-level differences in metamemory and memory performance; (2) differences in memory and metamemory as a function of type of task and instructional support; (3) whether task-specific metamemory predicts performance better than general metamemory; and (4) whether previous metamemory findings generalize to a variety of memory tasks. 62 average and 66 low-achieving children participated in 3 sessions. General metamemory was assessed for hypothetical performance, with task-specific metamemory assessed for actual performance. Memory performance was assessed across a variety of tasks. Memory improved with age and skill level. Age and skill-level differences were not consistent across metamemory tasks. Strategic metamemory revealed age and skill-level differences, whereas taxonomic metamemory revealed age differences in the average group only. Educational and theoretical relevance of the results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of three methods of estimating the standard deviation of performance in dollars.

196 supervisors in a national convenience store organization were asked to make the ratings needed to estimate standard deviation of performance in dollars (SDD), using (1) the method suggested by F. L. Schmidt et al (see record 1981-02231-001), (2) the CREPID procedure outlined by W. F. Cascio (1982), and (3) the 40% rule, suggested as an alternative by F. L. Schmidt et al (see record 1982-29165-001). Results show that Methods 2 and 3 produced comparable results. The SDD derived from Method 1 was 1.8 times as large as that produced by Method 2. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A comparison of forgetting in an implicit and explicit memory task.

Among possible criteria for distinguishing separate memory systems for implicit and explicit memory is that of substantial differences in either the form or rate of forgetting. Prior literature has claimed both differential forgetting and equivalent forgetting for implicit and explicit tasks. Existing experimental data for word-stem completion and explicit control tasks were reviewed and shown to be inconclusive. Our experiments measure forgetting in comparable implicit and explicit memory tasks of stem completion and stem cued recall. The form and the rate of forgetting are essentially the same for these implicit and explicit tasks. Levels of processing and task conditions differ only in the level of initial learning or availability. Thus, either the implicit and explicit task reflect traces in the same memory system or they reflect traces in different systems that have identical forgetting dynamics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of age on item and associative measures of memory: A meta-analysis.

In this meta-analysis, the authors evaluated recent suggestions that older adults' episodic memory impairments are partially due to a reduced ability to encode and retrieve associated/bound units of information. Results of 90 studies of episodic memory for both item and associative information in 3,197 young and 3,192 older adults provided support for the age-related associative/binding deficit suggestion, indicating a larger effect of age on memory for associative information than for item information. Moderators assessed included the type of associations, encoding instructions, materials, and test format. Results indicated an age-related associative deficit in memory for source, context, temporal order, spatial location, and item pairings, in both verbal and nonverbal material. An age-related associative deficit was quite pronounced under intentional learning instructions but was not clearly evident under incidental learning instructions. Finally, test format was also found to moderate the associative deficit, with older adults showing an associative/binding deficit when item memory was evaluated via recognition tests but not when item memory was evaluated via recall tests, in which case the age-related deficits were similar for item and associative information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The validity of violence risk estimates: An issue of item performance.

Typically, research conducted on the cross-validation or generalization of risk assessment schemes focuses on the aggregate score accuracy of the schemes within the new sample or population. Often overlooked when the schemes are examined in their aggregate form is the performance of the individual items. This study looks at the association between the items of the HCR-20 (C. D. Webster, K. S. Eaves, D. Douglas, & S. D. Wintrup, 1995) and the Violence Risk Appraisal Guide (VRAG; C. D. Webster, G. T. Harris, M. E. Rice, C. Cormier, & V. L. Quinsey, 1994) and violent recidivism in a sample of predominantly violent offenders. The results show that a number of the items from each scale do not distinguish between violent recidivists and nonrecidivists and that the presence of these items potentially reduces the predictive accuracy of the instruments. In addition, the inclusion of items that do not discriminate between recidivists and nonrecidivists potentially undermines the validity of the risk assessment process. Discussion centers on the application of prediction schemes and their individual risk factors in forensic practice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Global marital satisfaction versus marital adjustment: An empirical comparison of three measures.

Two measures of marital satisfaction, the Quality of Marriage Index (R. Norton; see record 1983-27053-001) and the Relationship Satisfaction Questionnaire (D. D. Burns and S. L. Sayers, 1992) were compared to a measure of marital adjustment, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (G. B. Spanier; see record 1977-00122-001). The measures showed excellent convergent validity (high correlations among each other and with other measures of marital functioning) and discriminant validity (low or nonsignificant correlations with psychopathology subscales). However, spouses' ratings of frequency of disagreements differed significantly from their ratings of satisfaction in the same areas. Formulas for converting scores among the measures are given, and the measures were found to have modest classification powers. The relative advantages and disadvantages of adjustment and satisfaction measures are discussed, and recommendations are made for when to use each type of measure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of the temporal lobes in recognizing visuospatial materials: remembering versus knowing

Recognition memory for abstract visuospatial designs was assessed in unilateral temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) patients and normal controls using a remember/know recognition paradigm. Subjects assigned "remember" judgments to recognized items for which they could recall the study presentation, and "know" judgments to items recognized on the basis of familiarity without conscious recollection of the study episode. In Experiment 1 normal controls and left TLE patients gave more "know" than "remember" recognition judgments for visuospatial materials. Right TLE subjects, however, showed the opposite response pattern. Experiment 1a demonstrated that this dissociation between left and right temporal patients occurred in both presurgery and postsurgery patients. In Experiment 2 recognition was assessed following encoding conditions in which subjects answered questions about either the number of lines in the designs or the appropriateness of verbal labels for presented stimuli. The previous pattern of "know" and "remember" responses was replicated for all groups in the line count condition, but was reversed for normal controls in the label condition. These results are interpreted within a theoretical framework in which "remember" responses are based on the contribution of distinctiveness of individual items to recognition whereas "know" judgements reflect perceptual fluency.     

The nature of stereotypes: A comparison and integration of three theories.

In the present research we examined predictions derived from the following three theoretical approaches to stereotyping: complexity-extremity theory, assumed characteristics theory, and expectancy-violation theory. In order to assess these predictions, we manipulated the race, personal appearance, and dialect style of target job applicants. White judges rated these applicants of a set of characteristics relevant to hiring decisions. Results were consistent with all three theories. Specifically, the range of judges' evaluations of black applicants was larger than the range of their evaluations of white applicants; the effects of personal appearance and dialect style were larger that the effects of race; and black applicants, on average, received more favorable ratings than white applicants. We present a model integrating all three perspectives, and we demonstrate its usefulness for explaining our results and for understanding past research on stereotypes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teaching reading to poor readers in the intermediate grades: A comparison of text difficulty.

The authors compared the influence of text difficulty--reading-level matched or grade-level matched--on the growth of poor readers' reading ability over 18 weeks of 1-to-1 tutoring. Forty-six 3rd-5th graders, including 25 with disabilities, were assigned randomly to 1 of 2 tutoring approaches or a control condition. Significant differences favored tutored children. Between approaches, the only significant difference was oral reading fluency, which favored students who read material at their reading level. Students who began with lower fluency made stronger gains in text matched to reading level; students with higher fluency profited from both treatments. When the 3 groups were combined, fluency was the strongest contributor to reading comprehension outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Deep-level composition variables as predictors of team performance: A meta-analysis.

This study sought to unify the team composition literature by using meta-analytic techniques to estimate the relationships between specified deep-level team composition variables (i.e., personality factors, values, abilities) and team performance. The strength of the team composition variable and team performance relationships was moderated by the study setting (lab or field) and the operationalization of the team composition variable. In lab settings, team minimum and maximum general mental ability and team mean emotional intelligence were related to team performance. Only negligible effects were observed in lab settings for the personality factor and team performance relationships, as well as the value and team performance relationships. In contrast, team minimum agreeableness and team mean conscientiousness, openness to experience, collectivism, and preference for teamwork emerged as strong predictors of team performance in field studies. Results can be used to effectively compose teams in organizations and guide future team composition research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Violent versus nonviolent couples: A comparison of patterns.

Administered a research questionnaire to 3 groups of married couples (19 violent couples, 7 nonviolent couples in marital therapy, and 24 nonviolent couples not in therapy) to identify characteristics of violent couples. Violent Ss were engaged in counseling for wife battery. Results show that alcohol was the most significant factor operating in violent marriages. Violent couples were also found to have significantly more stereotyped sex-role attitudes, more aggressive and passive behaviors, less marital satisfaction, and a greater degree of dissatisfaction with decision making in the family. Violent couples usually witnessed more violence in their childhood homes. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Organization in memory: A comparison of psychotics and normals.

15 acute schizophrenics, 11 acute psychotic depressives, and 15 normal Ss completed a multitrial free-recall task. The 30 to-be-remembered nouns from 6 conceptual categories were printed, 1 on each card. During self-paced presentation, the nouns were sorted into S-determined categories. Patient recall was inferior. The extent to which successive categorizations of the words during sorting were similar and reflected norms of category membership was measured. No significant group differences were realized. Patient recall clustering, defined both by norms of category membership and subjective sorting categorizations, was inferior. On no measure did schizophrenics and depressives differ. Results indicate that with lists of relatively high semantic content, the recall impairment displayed by schizophrenics and depressives stems mainly from an inability to completely use perceived structuring of the list during recall. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)