A comparison of infants' and adults' sensitivity to Western musical structure.

28 adults and 48 8-mo-old infants listened to repeated transpositions of a 10-note melody exemplifying the rules of Western tonal music. They were tested for their detection of 2 types of changes to that melody: (1) a 4-semitone change in 1 note that remained within the key and implied dominant harmony (diatonic change) or (2) a 1-semitone change in the same note that went outside the key (nondiatonic change). Adults easily detected the nondiatonic change but had difficulty with the diatonic change. Infants detected both changes equally well, performing better than adults in some circumstances. These findings imply that there are qualitative differences in infants' and adults' processing of musical information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Infants' perception of musical relations in short transposed tone sequences.

Tested 104 infants (aged 7–11 mo) for their detection of a frequency relational change of 1 semitone in a 5-note melody. In Exp I, Ss were able to discriminate contrasting melodies that differed from the background melodies by 1 semitone. In Exp II, Ss detected a semitone difference more easily when the major triad was background and a relatively uncommon triad, the augmented triad, was the contrast. In Exp III, Ss discriminated the major and minor backgrounds used in Exps I and II from contrasting variations, called inversions, that did not differ in triad quality. Results indicate that infants can respond to precise relations between the component tones of a melody based on familiar or stable structures. Findings also imply that sets of tones that are unfamiliar or unstable may present encoding or memory difficulties for infants, as has been found for children and adults. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An event-related potential (ERP) study of musical expectancy: Comparison of musicians with nonmusicians.

Musicians and nonmusicians listened to musical phrases that were either selected from the classical repertoire or composed for the experiments. The phrases ended either congruously or with a nondiatonic, diatonic, or rhythmic violation. Percentage of correct responses was analyzed in Exp 1, and event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded in Exps 2 and 3. Musicians performed better than nonmusicians in recognizing familiar musical phrases and classifying terminal notes. The differences found as a function of expertise were larger for unfamiliar than for familiar melodies. The ERPs to the end notes differed both in terms of amplitude and latency between musicians and nonmusicians, and as a function of participants' familiarity with the melodies and type of violation. Results show that expertise influences the decisional rather than the purely perceptual aspects of music processing and that ERPs can provide important insight into the study of music perception. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental changes in children's perception of musical sequences: Effects of musical training.

Five- and 9-year-olds were presented a 9-note melody and asked to select the line drawing that best depicted the melodic contour, or the sequential pattern of rising and falling pitches. Melodies varied in tonality and contour complexity: tonal melodies contained only diatonic notes, whereas atonal melodies also included some nondiatonic notes. Contour complexity was manipulated by varying the number of changes in direction of the contour. At both ages, the performance of musically trained children surpassed that of their untrained peers, and performance generally declined with increasing contour complexity. At 9 years, children performed better for tonal than atonal melodies, but this difference reached significance only for the musically trained children. The performance of the 5-year-olds did not vary with tonality. These findings indicate a lengthy course for development of sensitivity to diatonic scale structure and suggest that musical training may enhance this knowledge acquisition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Suggestibility of children's memory: Psycholegal implications.

Examined the psychological mechanisms responsible for suggestibility in the accounts of young children in 4 experiments. Exp I examined whether 182 children (aged 3–12 yrs) were susceptible to misleading postevent information. Results indicate that young children (3- and 4-yr olds) are particularly vulnerable to suggestion. The subsequent experiments focused on this age range and the basis for their susceptibility to misleading postevent information. Exp II, with 102 Ss (mean age 4.6 yrs) found that Ss' susceptibility to misleading information was reduced when another child, as opposed to an adult, provided the misleading information. Therefore, suggestibility effects in children arise in part from a desire to conform to the wishes of an adult authority figure. Exps III and IV tested 2 competing hypotheses as to how postevent suggestions distort children's memories using a total of 175 preschoolers. Data indicate that postevent suggestions can in fact distort memory. Results from these 4 experiments are discussed within the context of children's eyewitness memory and the associated psycholegal implications. (66 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of divided attention on memory for items and their context.

Examined differences between item and context memory using divided attention at encoding and retrieval. Ss, in 3 experiments, were presented with word lists and were instructed to learn the items (i.e., words), the intrinsic context (i.e., the color of the cards on which each word was presented), and the extrinsic context (i.e., the temporal order of the words). In Exp 1 24 undergraduates (aged 20–32 yrs) participated in a digit-monitoring and memory tasks. In Exp 2 the authors examined the effect of divided attention at retrieval using 24 undergraduates (aged 18–29 yrs). In Exp 3 the authors examined memory performance when divided attention was employed at encoding on all lists, and attentional load was manipulated at retrieval using 24 undergraduates (aged 19–32 yrs). Among young adults, in comparison to conditions of full attention, divided attention applied at encoding only or retrieval only resulted in equally lower performance on all memory tasks; in contrast, divided attention applied at both encoding and retrieval resulted in lower performance only on memory for temporal order. The findings support the idea that memory for temporal order requires greater attentional resources and strategic processing than memory for items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How to assess the listening comprehension skills of prereaders.

In Exp I, a listening span test, a word span test, and a listening comprehension test were administered to 24 preschoolers (ages 3 yrs 2 mo to 5 yrs 2 mo) to determine whether listening span correlated well with Ss' listening integration skills. In Exp II, with 20 preschoolers (aged 3 yrs 4 mo to 5 yrs) a longer listening comprehension test was administered in which comprehension depended on the integration of at least 2 important ideas in the narrative. Results show that the measure of listening span was a successful measure of the listening comprehension skills of prereaders because it tapped skills at an intermediate level of complexity. The word span measure involved lower-level processes like word encoding and lexical access, but listening span captured many of the processes of normal sentence comprehension. In addition, listening span was easy to administer and had high predictive validity. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pitch and rhythmic patterns affecting infants' sensitivity to musical phrase structure.

The present studies were undertaken to learn more about the nature of the cues that underlie infants' perception of musical phrase structure. Exp 1 demonstrated that infants in C. L. Krumhansl and P. W. Jusczyk's (1990) study were responding to the phrase structure instead of to the beginnings and endings of Mozart minuet stimuli. Exp 2 showed that infants treat musical passages with pauses inserted at phrase boundaries much as they do unaltered versions of the same passages. Exps 3 and 4 indicated that the direction of change in pitch height and tone duration is critical to obtaining longer orientation times to musical passages that are segmented at phrase boundaries. Finally, Exp 5 demonstrates that different effects found for the forward and reversed versions of the passages with inserted pauses are not the result of an intrinsic preference for the forward versions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of media on picturing by children and adults.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 21(3) of Developmental Psychology (see record 2008-10969-001). The reference to Copple, Cocking, and Waxman on pages 667 and 672 is incorrectly cited as 1968. The correct date is 1980.] Examined the hypothesis that adults and children have media-specific conceptions of picturing and that the functional uses of photography and drawing differ across development. 30 preschoolers (aged 4.0–5.6 yrs), 30 schoolchildren (aged 6.6–10.0 yrs), and 30 adults (aged 17–63 yrs) responded to either a photographic or drawing task. In each task, Ss were asked to talk aloud about what they were doing or thinking as they produced their pictures. The results show a progression with age from viewing photography as only reflecting the real object (preschoolers), to viewing it as a medium that allows for control and alteration of reality (school age children and adults). For drawing, all age groups displayed knowledge of the ability to control aspects of their productions. Symbolic performance is thus as closely linked to the S's experience in the use of a medium as to the age of the S. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Audioanalgesia in the control of experimental pain.

Investigated the moderating effects of choice and preference of music on pain perception. 90 students (aged 17–35 yrs) initially rated and ranked 6 musical selections, from most-to-least preferred in a context unrelated to pain testing. In the experiment proper, Ss received 3 trials of finger-pressure pain of which the 1st and 3rd trial involved no-treatment. Following baseline, half of the Ss (Choice condition) were asked to rate and rank the previous 6 musical selections and the remaining Ss were not required to do so (No-Choice). One-third of Ss in each of these groups were assigned either their most-preferred, least-preferred or no music during trial 2. Ss receiving their preferred music reported greater control, expected pain reductions and actual pain reductions compared to groups receiving their least-preferred music or no music. While choice failed to interact with preference, expectancies, coping cognitions and the annoying and relaxing qualities of the music were moderate predictors of reported pain change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Infant preference for both male and female infant-directed talk: A developmental study of attentional and affective responsiveness.

12 infants (aged 18–30 wks) in Exp 1 were significantly more attentive to a video recording of both a male and a female speaker delivering infant-directed talk (IDT) rather than adult-directed talk (ADT). Results were extended and replicated in Exp 2 with 32 infants (aged 4–5.5 mo or 7.5–9 mo). Younger Ss were significantly more responsive than older Ss on both attentional and affective measures. 16 infants (aged 4–5.5 mo) in Exp 3 preferred vocal features of IDT over ADT even with facial features held constant. 20 undergraduates in Exp 4 rated infants listening to IDT as more appealing, suggesting that IDT may facilitate the establishment of an emotional relationship between adults and infants. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dynamics of reciprocal sibling interaction: Are context and maternal behaviour important?

Dyadic behaviors characterizing sibling exchanges, symmetry of dyadic styles and the influence of context (degree of task structure and maternal absence or presence) on sibling interaction were investigated. Additionally, associations between maternal interaction styles and the affective quality of the sibling relationship were examined. Twenty-six sibling pairs and their mothers participated in 3 play sessions. First born siblings were aged 5.3–7.1 yrs and second born siblings were aged 3.2–3.8 yrs. Findings reveal reciprocity within dyads for cooperative and rivalrous behaviors. Balanced and unbalanced patterns of sibling interaction were identified. Task structure did not influence sibling interaction (holding maternal presence constant). Maternal presence or absence was associated with a quantitative and qualitative change in sibling interaction. Maternal styles (attentive responsiveness, active engagement, praise) were differentially related to the quality of the sibling interaction in maternal presence versus absence. The sibling dyad is discussed as an important context for learning about the dynamics of social relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer imitation by toddlers in laboratory, home, and day-care contexts: Implications for social learning and memory.

Three experiments examined peer imitation with 14- to 18-mo-old infants. In Exp 1, infants saw a trained 14-mo-old ("expert peer") perform specific actions on 5 objects. Imitation from memory was tested after a 5-min delay. In Exp 2, the infants observed an expert peer in the laboratory, and retention and imitation were tested in the home (change of context) after a 2-day delay. In Exp 3, a peer demonstrated target acts at a day care, and after a 2-day delay infants were tested in their homes. Results from all 3 experiments showed significant imitation compared with controls. The experiments demonstrate social learning from peers during infancy and also provide the first evidence for infant imitation from memory across a change in context. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interaction entre facteurs phonologiques et sémantiques dans un épreuve de catégorisation lexicale.

Studied interactions between semantic class (persons vs inanimate objects) and type of initial phoneme (consonant vs vowel) in a lexical categorization task involving rapid identification of the grammatical gender (masculine vs feminine) of French nouns. Human Ss: 40 normal male and female Canadian adults (aged 17–32 yrs) (university students) (native French speakers) (Exp 1). 40 normal male and female Canadian adults (aged 17–47 yrs) (university students) (native French speakers) (Exp 2). In both experiments, Ss were asked to categorize animate and inanimate nouns beginning with consonants or vowels according to their grammatical gender. In 1 experimental condition, Ss used the labels "feminine" and "masculine" to express their choice of gender. In another condition, Ss used the indefinite feminine article ("une") or the indefinite masculine article ("un") to express their choice of gender. In Exp 1, animate and inanimate nouns were mixed together in the experimental list. In Exp 2, animate and inanimate nouns were presented in semantically homogeneous blocks. The speed and error rates of Ss' categorization performances were determined. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult age differences in the ability to cope with situations of high arousal in a precision sport.

Conducted 3 field experiments in which skilled miniature golf players were studied in 3 types of activities (training, minor competitions, and large competitions). Ss for Exp I were 5 22–32 yr olds and 5 47–58 yr olds; 14 Ss in Exp II were aged 7–24 yrs, 15–28 yrs, or 19–45 yrs; Ss for Exp III were 5 48–59 yr olds and 6 23–35 yr olds. Performance (i.e., number of shots) and arousal (heart rate and subjective ratings of anxiety) measures were registered in all types of activities. Findings show that the level of performance of older adult players deteriorated in the large competitions, whereas groups of younger adult players, junior players, and youth players performed at the same level in all 3 events, although all of the groups exhibited a similar increase in arousal from training and minor competitions to large competitions. It is suggested that older players may have a deficit in the ability to compensate for the negative effects of nonoptimal levels of arousal because of impairments in a variety of cognitive abilities that are critical to successful performance. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Counselor hypothesis testing strategies: The role of initial impressions and self-schema.

Tested, in 2 experiments, the robustness of the findings of the 1st author and L. A. Newman (see record 1984-04824-001) concerning the lack of confirmatory bias in the way that counselors collect data to test their hypothesis. In Exp I, 40 counselors (aged 25–55 yrs) were asked to develop their own clinical hypothesis to determine whether investment or involvement in the hypothesis may influence counselors to be biased in the questions they ask. In Exp II, 40 counseling students (aged 22–54 yrs) were given a hypothesis to test that was consistent with their self-schema to determine whether bias toward confirmation occurs when the counselor is testing a hypothesis that is also an important part of their own self-concept. Confirmatory bias in hypothesis testing was not supported in either experiment. Results support the position that the bias toward constructing confirmatory questioning strategies reported in social judgment literature may be more a function of the methodology used than of a strong tendency for individuals to be confirmatory. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Monitoring and planning capacities in the acquisition of music performance skills.

Investigated changes in cognitive capacities that occur as musicians acquire performance skills. A study is presented of child pianists (aged 6–14 yrs) of beginning and intermediate skill levels who performed well-learned musical pieces. Computer-detected pitch errors in the performances provided evidence for skill-related increases in both monitoring and planning: Children with more musical training showed quicker detection and correction of errors, more anticipatory and less perseveratory behavior, and larger range of planning than children with less training. A study of adult musicians' (mean age 27 yrs) advanced performances, which showed heightened sensitivity to melody and repeated pitch structures is also reported. Results show that planning and monitoring capacities increased most during initial stages of musical skill acquisition, whereas sensitivity to musical structure increased across all skill levels. Lists of beginners, intermediates' and adults' musical pieces performed are appended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temporal coding by young and elderly adults: A test of the Hasher-Zacks model.

Reports 2 experiments that examine the "automatic" nature of temporal coding. 70 elderly (aged 60–75 yrs) and 103 young (aged 17–29 yrs) women participated. In Exp I, Ss listened to a list of 50 words and were then required to give their best estimate of the 10th of the list in which they had heard each word. As predicted by the model of L. Hasher and R. T. Zacks (1979), awareness of the location requirement had no effect on performance. Although the younger Ss exhibited superior location memory, this was attributed to a pronounced tendency on the part of the elderly to be conservative with respect to assigning words to early and late locations. The effects on performance of this response bias were eliminated in Exp II by the use of M. Toglia and G. Kimble's (1976) Adjusted Index of Location Scores. No age differences in location memory were observed. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comportement d'attention du nourrisson et modulation du langage maternel.

Studied the relationship between the attentional behaviors of infants and the prosodic modulations of their mothers' speech. Ss were 14 mothers (aged 27 yrs) and their infants (aged 4 mo). Mother–infant dyads were observed during face-to-face interactions. Mothers' speech prosody was analyzed in relation to the gaze behaviors of their infants. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intermediate-size transposition and children's operational level.

Three experiments with a total of 170 children aged 4 yrs 8 mo–7 yrs 5 mo examined the relationship between intermediate-size transposition and operational level. In each experiment, concrete and preoperational Ss were identified by Piagetian tasks. In Exp I, half of the Ss received single-problem training and the other half multiple-problem training, followed by a far test of transposition. Exp II was similar to the multiple-training condition, but all Ss could verbalize and understand the concept "middle size." Exp III differed from Exp II in providing a test of near transposition after single-problem training. It was found that logical abilities as well as perceptual factors are involved in transposition performance. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)