The effects of scent and game play experience on memory of a virtual environment

Scent has been well documented as having significant effects on emotion (Alaoui-Ismaili in Physiol Behav 62(4):713–720, 1997; Herz et al. in Motiv Emot 28(4):363–383, 2004), learning (Smith et al. in Percept Mot Skills 74(2):339–343, 1992; Morgan in Percept Mot Skills 83(3)(2):1227–1234, 1996), memory (Herz in Am J Psychol 110(4):489–505, 1997) and task performance (Barker et al. in Percept Mot Skills 97(3)(1):1007–1010, 2003). This paper describes an experiment in which environmentally appropriate scent was presented as an additional sensory modality consistent with other aspects of a virtual environment called DarkCon. Subjects’ game play habits were recorded as an additional factor for analysis. Subjects were randomly assigned to receive scent during the VE, and/or afterward during a task of recall of the environment. It was hypothesized that scent presentation during the VE would significantly improve recall, and that subjects who were presented with scent during the recall task, in addition to experiencing the scented VE, would perform the best on the recall task. Skin-conductance was a significant predictor of recall, over and above experimental groups. Finally, it was hypothesized that subjects’ game play habits would affect both their behavior in and recall of the environment. Results are encouraging to the use of scent in virtual environments, and directions for future research are discussed. The project described herein has been sponsored by the US Army Research, Development, and Engineering Command (RDECOM). Statements and opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the position or the policy of the US Government; no official endorsement should be inferred.     

Spatial navigation in large-scale virtual environments: Gender differences in survey tasks

Most of the studies on gender differences in spatial abilities have focused on traditional paper and pencil cognitive tests, while these differences have been less investigated in navigational tasks carried out in complex virtual environments (VEs). The aim of the present study has been to evaluate gender differences in route and survey knowledge by means of specific tasks (route-learning, pointing, landmark-placing) carried out in two separate VEs. In addition the male and female participants were subjected to a battery of spatial abilities tests and specific self-report questionnaires. The results showed a significant difference favouring males in the survey tasks, as well as in the spatial abilities tests; on the contrary, no gender differences were found in the route task. Moreover, a different pattern of correlations among the measures were found in the male and female sub-groups.     

The embodiment of sexualized virtual selves: The Proteus effect and experiences of self-objectification via avatars

Research has indicated that many video games and virtual worlds are populated by unrealistic, hypersexualized representations of women, but the effects of embodying these representations remains understudied. The Proteus effect proposed by Yee and Bailenson (2007) suggests that embodiment may lead to shifts in self-perception both online and offline based on the avatar’s features or behaviors. A 2 × 2 experiment, the first of its kind, examined how self-perception and attitudes changed after women (N = 86) entered a fully immersive virtual environment and embodied sexualized or nonsexualized avatars which featured either the participant’s face or the face of an unknown other. Findings supported the Proteus effect. Participants who wore sexualized avatars internalized the avatar’s appearance and self-objectified, reporting more body-related thoughts than those wearing nonsexualized avatars. Participants who saw their own faces, particularly on sexualized avatars, expressed more rape myth acceptance than those in other conditions. Implications for both online and offline consequences of using sexualized avatars are discussed.     

Narrowing gender-based performance gaps in virtual environment navigation

Virtual environments provide a model of the world that can simulate real spaces or represent new, previously unexplored worlds. Effective navigation within these virtual worlds is a key to user satisfaction and goal achievement. Empirical research, however, shows large differences in navigation performance due to gender. This paper presents conceptual background on the nature of the gaps and how navigation tools might reduce them. Patterns of findings for empirical studies published after the year 2000 provide insight into the performance gaps and potential mechanisms for their reduction. Proven relationships between performance improvement and use of navigation tools are yet to be established, so user testing remains critical. Potential new research can provide additional understanding of the nature of performance by gathering user behavior and cognitive rationale data, further investigating gender differences in visuospatial working memory capacity, and applying metacognitive training approaches used in other navigable media such as hypermedia.     

Defining the virtual self: Personality,behavior, and the psychology of embodiment

Although researchers have discussed the existence of a virtual self, or embodiment of human characteristics within an avatar, little known about how the virtual self influences a player’s behavior within a virtual environment. To better understand this relationship, World of Warcraft game players were asked to complete personality-rating scales for both themselves and their avatars. In addition, in-world behavior was recorded and then analyzed using a behavioral assessment checklist. Results suggested a relationship between personality and behavior within the domain of agreeableness. Based on these findings, the researchers discuss implications for the construct known as the virtual self, as well as the inclusion of psychological systems design into the overall game design process.     

Effects of low stereo acuity on performance, presence and sickness within a virtual environment

To examine the effect of stereo vision on performance, presence and oculomotor disturbances within a virtual environment (VE), two groups of 23 participants (good stereo acuity/low stereo acuity) were evaluated. Groups were matched in terms of gender, age and VE design factors (the latter were accounted for to ensure a similar VE experience between groups). Participants were immersed in a VE maze for up to 1h during which time they interacted with the environment while performing a number of stationary and movement-based tasks. Individuals with low stereo acuity traveled further to complete two tasks in the VE, yet performance time on these tasks was comparable to participants with good stereo acuity. Although participants with impaired stereo vision likely did not fully benefit from a stereoscopic view of the scene, they may have received sufficient depth information from movement-based cues to efficiently accomplish these tasks in a comparable amount of time. Overall performance, based on both the number of tasks completed and the total translational distance moved (based on input device movement) within the VE was not hindered for those with low stereo acuity. In addition, the expected increase in oculomotor disturbances for this group was not evident in this study, and both groups reported comparable amounts of presence from VE exposure. These results suggest that when head tracking is included as part of the VE experience (i.e., motion parallax cues exist), participants with low stereo acuity can be expected to perform comparable to normal sighted individuals, experience a comparable sense of presence, and report no increase in adverse effects when viewing scenes via stereoscopic displays. Thus, motion parallax cues may adequately provide a sense of depth within a VE, and alleviate theorized performance decrements for individuals with low stereo acuity. The results of this study have implications for those designing entertainment simulations or other such applications open to the general public, where people with low stereo acuity may routinely participate.     

Effective virtual reality based building navigation using dynamic loading and path optimization

Although computer capabilities have been improved significantly, a large-scale virtual reality (VR) system demands much more in terms of memory and computation than the current computer systems can offer. This paper discusses two important issues related to VR performance and applications in building navigation. These are dynamic loading of models based on cell segmentation for the optimal VR operation, and the route optimization based on path planning for easy navigation. The VR model of engineering and information technology complex (EITC) building at the University of Manitoba is built as an example to show the feasibility of the proposed methods. The reality, enhanced by three-dimensional (3D) real-time interactivity and visualization, leads navigators into a state of the virtual building immersion.     

Individual differences and personality correlates of navigational performance in the virtual route learning task

Research on the mechanisms and processes underlying navigation has traditionally been limited by the practical problems of setting up and controlling navigation in a real-world setting. Thanks to advances in technology, a growing number of researchers are making use of computer-based virtual environments to draw inferences about real-world navigation. However, little research has been done on factors affecting human–computer interactions in navigation tasks. In this study female students completed a virtual route learning task and filled out a battery of questionnaires, which determined levels of computer experience, wayfinding anxiety, neuroticism, extraversion, psychoticism and immersive tendencies as well as their preference for a route or survey strategy. Scores on personality traits and individual differences were then correlated with the time taken to complete the navigation task, the length of path travelled, the velocity of the virtual walk and the number of errors.Navigation performance was significantly influenced by wayfinding anxiety, psychoticism, involvement and overall immersive tendencies and was improved in those participants who adopted a survey strategy. In other words, navigation in virtual environments is effected not only by navigational strategy, but also an individual’s personality, and other factors such as their level of experience with computers. An understanding of these differences is crucial before performance in virtual environments can be generalised to real-world navigational performance.     

The virtual museum: Interactive 3D navigation of a multimedia database

The Virtual Museum is an interactive, electronic museum where users can move from room to room, and select any exhibit in a room for more detailed examination. The exhibits in the museum are educational, encompassing topics such as medicine, plant growth, the environment, and space. To facilitate interaction with the museum, a new method for navigating through a prerendered 3D space, and interacting with objects in that space has been developed, called ‘virtual navigation’. Virtual navigation employs real-time video decompression for the display of, and interaction with, high-quality computer animation. In addition, a representation for 3D objects in animated sequences is used which permits pixel-accurate, frame-accurate object picking, so that a viewer can select any 3D object to trigger movement within the 3D space, to examine an exhibit in animated form, or to play a digital movie or soundtrack. The use of precomputed video permits 3D navigation in a realistic-looking space, without requiring special-purpose graphics hardware.     

Communication in virtual environments: The influence of spatial cues and gender on verbal behavior

As communication technologies continue to evolve, more people will engage in virtual social interactions. With this trend comes an increasing need for research on behavior within virtual worlds. This study contributes to that agenda by focusing on the influence of physical attributes of a virtual setting and gender on verbal behavior expressed by mixed-gender dyads in a virtual world. Computerized text analyses revealed linguistic differences as a function of both the physical and social complexity of virtual settings and gender. The latter differences included both quantitative and qualitative features of written communication. These results add important new discoveries to the literature on virtual psychology and highlight the value of using text analysis tools to investigate virtual interactions.     

Effects of age,cognitive, and personal factors on PDA menu navigation performance

The present study examined the PDA menu navigation performance of younger and older adults. The research focus was directed to the understanding of the combination and interaction of user characteristics with PDA menu navigation performance. In order to detail individual factors that influence user's performance, users' age, spatial ability, verbal memory, the confidence to use technical devices and computer-expertise were studied and related to performance outcomes. Younger and older adults, experienced with the usage of different technical devices, but PDA novices, had to complete four common tasks in the digital diary of an emulated PDA and users' effectiveness and efficiency were surveyed. Even though the users of both age groups had a comparably high computer experience, participants had considerable difficulties to solve the PDA tasks successfully. Especially older adults were strongly disadvantaged when navigating through the PDA menu. Among the user characteristics which were revealed to be essential for performance, spatial abilities were the best predictor to explain PDA performance. In addition, an adequate mental representation of the PDA data structure was decisive for navigation performance, especially in the older adult group.     

Do challenge, task experience or computer familiarity influence the learning of historical chronology from virtual environments in 8-9 year old children?

Studies examined the potential use of VEs in teaching historical chronology to 127 children of primary school age (8-9 years). The use of passive fly-through VEs had been found, in an earlier study, to be disadvantageous with this age group when tested for their subsequent ability to place displayed sequential events in correct chronological order. All VEs in the present studies included active challenge, previously shown to enhance learning in older participants. Primary school children in the UK (all frequent computer users) were tested using UK historical materials, but no significant effect was found between three conditions (Paper, PowerPoint and VE) with minimal pre-training. However, excellent (error free) learning occurred when children were allowed greater exploration prior to training in the VE. In Ukraine, with children having much less computer familiarity, training in a VE (depicting Ukrainian history) produced better learning compared to PowerPoint, but no better than in a Paper condition. The results confirmed the benefit of using challenge in a VE with primary age children, but only with adequate prior familiarisation with the medium. Familiarity may reduce working memory load and increase children’s spatial memory capacity for acquiring sequential temporal-spatial information from virtual displays.