Exploring the behavioral patterns of learners in an educational massively multiple online role-playing game (MMORPG)

Massively multiple online role-playing games (MMORPGs) are very popular among students. Educational MMORPGs, however, are very rare, as are studies on gamers’ behavioral patterns during such games. The current study is an empirical observation and analysis of the behavioral patterns of 100 gamers participating in an educational MMORPG called Talking Island^©. In our study, we recorded and summarized the gaming behaviors demonstrated by these participants over 335 days of observation from December 2009 to October 2010. We coded the recorded behaviors and conducted a frequency analysis, sequential analysis and cluster analysis to explore the behavioral distributions, behavioral-frequency transition and behavior-cluster patterns in the MMORPG. Gender differences in behavioral patterns were also compared and discussed. Based on the results, we discuss the potential and limitations of the game and provide suggestions for future research on and the development of educational MMORPGs.     

Mediating roles of self-presentation desire in online game community commitment and trust behavior of Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games

Massive Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Games (MMORPGs), which allow simultaneous participation of several gamers, have attracted a great deal of attention recently. Since MMORPGs can be categorized as a type of online community, the behavior of MMORPGs users needs to be considered as the general behavior in online communities. However, previous studies of online communities did not pay enough attention to MMORPGs, in which users can express themselves by interacting actively through games and game avatars. Understanding the characteristics of MMORPGs as online game communities where users communicate and interact will allow games to be vitalized and users to be immersed in games in a more positive way. Hence, using self-presentation theory and social identity theory, this study examined the factors influencing self-presentation desire and the mediating role of self-presentation desire examined in terms of trust of and commitments to online game communities. The results showed that the interactivity in the spaces of MMORPGs had the biggest impacts on self-presentation desire; personal innovativeness and game design quality also was influential. The results also indicated that self-presentation desire caused trust of online games and eventually led to even stronger commitments to gamers.     

Why do you play World of Warcraft? An in-depth exploration of self-reported motivations to play online and in-game behaviours in the virtual world of Azeroth

Massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) are video games in which players create an avatar that evolves and interacts with other avatars in a persistent virtual world. Motivations to play MMORPGs are heterogeneous (e.g. achievement, socialisation, immersion in virtual worlds). This study investigates in detail the relationships between self-reported motives and actual in-game behaviours. We recruited a sample of 690 World of Warcraft players (the most popular MMORPG) who agreed to have their avatar monitored for 8 months. Participants completed an initial online survey about their motives to play. Their actual in-game behaviours were measured through the game’s official database (the Armory website). Results showed specific associations between motives and in-game behaviours. Moreover, longitudinal analyses revealed that teamwork- and competition-oriented motives are the most accurate predictors of fast progression in the game. In addition, although specific associations exist between problematic use and certain motives (e.g. advancement, escapism), longitudinal analyses showed that high involvement in the game is not necessarily associated with a negative impact upon daily living.     

On the challenge and design of transport protocols for MMORPGs

Although MMORPGs are becoming increasingly popular as well as a highly profitable Internet business, there is still a fundamental design question: Which transport protocol should be used—TCP, UDP, or some other protocol? In this paper, we first evaluate whether TCP is suitable for MMORPGs, and then propose some novel transport strategies for this genre of games. Our analysis of a trace collected from a TCP-based MMORPG called ShenZhou Online indicates that TCP is unwieldy and inappropriate for MMORPGs. We find that the degraded network performance problems are due to the following characteristics of MMORPG traffic: 1) tiny packets, 2) a low packet rate, 3) application-limited traffic generation, and 4) bi-directional traffic. Since not all game packets require reliable transmission or in-order delivery, transmitting all packets with a strict delivery guarantee causes high delays and delay jitters. Therefore, our proposed transport strategies assign game packets with appropriate levels of transmission guarantee depending on the requirements of the packets’ contents. To compare the performance of our approach with that of existing transport protocols, we conduct network simulations with a real-life game trace from Angel’s Love. The results demonstrate that our strategies significantly reduce the end-to-end delay and delay jitter of packet delivery. Finally, we show that our strategies effectively raise satisfaction levels of the game players.     

A model of cognitive loads in massively multiplayer online role playing games

Being one of the most commercially successful entertainment software applications, massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPGs) continue to expand in term of the revenue they generate as well as the involvement of users who congregate in their virtual space and form communities around them to support each other. Unlike conventional offline computer games, or networked games with limited numbers of players, MMORPGs are not merely software applications as they are usually seen as a space with complicated dynamics of social interactions. Hence, it is believed that playing these games might cause cognitive overload problems among the players as they have to constantly interact with the game world as well as with other users. We conducted an exploratory study using qualitative methods to explore cognitive overloads in Maple Story, a typical MMORPG. Our results reveal that several types of cognitive overloads emerge during the game playing. While some of these overloads pose serious problems even to expert players, players seem to develop strategies to overcome them. It is found that some forms of cognitive load are actually desirable in order to make the game challenging. We have also created a set of recommendations that can help game developers handle cognitive load problems in MMORPGs.     

Beyond the fascination of online-games: Probing addictive behavior and depression in the world of online-gaming

This study examined problematic gaming behavior and depressive tendencies among people who play different types of online-games. Other game-related variables were investigated to determine if other differences between three game types could be established. Participants in the current research (n = 468) can be classified into three independent groups. Subjected users either solely played massive multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) or they preferred online-ego-shooters (OES) or real-time-strategy games (RTS). Results indicate that MMORPG users show more often problematic gaming behavior, depressive tendencies and lower self-esteem compared to users playing other online-games. MMORPG users reported to playing significantly more often in order to escape from real-life problems, which might be a valuable coping strategy but might also lead to problematic gaming behavior.     

Challenges of designing for sociability to enhance player experience in Massively Multi-player Online Role-playing Games

Massively Multi-player Online Role-playing Games (MMORPGs) have become a popular leisure activity. It has been suggested that the reason for their popularity is that they offer a new ‘third-place’ for people to socialise. However, designing for sociability in these games has been shown to be a challenge. In this article, we discuss the results of an online survey that was directed towards game design researchers and professionals. We then present a subsequent discussion on the results of the survey at a Special Interest Group (SIG) held at CHI 2011. Through analysis of the findings of the survey and the discussion, we propose six requirements that facilitate the design of MMORPGs: In-game Communication, Off-game Communication, Empathy, Grouping and Rewards, World Design, and Designed Relationships. We state that it is not necessary to add all the proposed requirements in the design of such games, but we also caution that a game that does not include any of the requirements presented here cannot belong to this genre. We discuss limitations of this work, and offer future research directions that result from this work.     

Gender and player characteristics in video game play of preadolescents

The present study explores the relation among different characteristics of preadolescents and their video game habits and preferences. Specifically, the predictive power of age, gender, and psychological adjustment on time spent playing video games and game preference was explored. Children ages 10–15 were given two surveys: a video game habits survey and the BASC-II self-report assessment of personality. Results confirm previous findings of significant gender differences in both time spent playing video games and game type preference. For preadolescents, males were found to spend more time overall playing video games, but for both males and females time spent playing increased with age. No relation was found between time spent playing video games and negative psychological adjustment, as assessed by the BASC-II. Game type preference was predicted by several psychological characteristics. For example, females’ positive feelings about the self were associated with increased likelihood of electing First Person Shooters as a favored game type, and males’ internalizing difficulties were associated with decreased likelihood of electing Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPGs). The current findings confirm previous results with preadolescents, an under-studied age group, and lend novel insight into the psychological processes that contribute to video game preference.     

Game feature and expertise effects on experienced richness, control and engagement in game play

The extent to which game play is experienced as engaging is an important criterion for the playability of video games. This study investigates how video games can be designed towards increased levels of experienced engagement over time. For this purpose, two experiments were conducted in which a total of 35 participants repeatedly played a video game. Results indicate that experienced engagement is based on the extent to which the game provides rich experiences as well as by the extent to which the game provides a sense of control. In view of the influence of both game features and players’ expertise on the levels of experienced richness and control, it is concluded that game features should be modified over time to maintain optimal levels of engagement.     

Motivational characteristics of Turkish MMORPG players

Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPGs) attract millions of online gamers all over the world. However, very few studies have addressed the nature of participants in these games through a robust theoretical background. Thus, the need for theory-based attempts to understand the characteristics of players in different contexts is urgent. The current study adapted a contemporary scale on gamer motivations with Turkish MMORPG members. Confirmatory factor analyses with 307 Turkish MMORPG players revealed that the scale worked effectively. Furthermore, the proposed factor structure and the structural equation model sheltering the interrelationships among the motivation components were supported with a theoretical background on the Self-determination Theory (SDT). It was observed that Turkish MMORPG players were mostly non-working and young males who demonstrated unique playing patterns. Their playing time was correlated with the level of education, body mass index and age. Advancement in the game, game mechanics and socializing were the leading motivations whereas teamwork has been given less importance. The study also revealed that the autonomy, competence and relatedness needs which are proposed by the SDT are not mutually exclusive components. Findings were discussed followed by implications and suggestions for further studies.     

Schizotypal personality traits and problematic use of massively-multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs)

A link between maladaptive personality traits and an excessive use of massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) has been documented. However, the role of schizotypal personality traits in MMORPG use is understudied. The aim of this study was to explore the potential links between schizotypal traits, motivations for playing MMORPGs, and symptoms of problematic MMORPG use. Eighty-three MMORPG gamers were enrolled in the study. They filled out questionnaires measuring schizotypal personality traits and an adapted version of the same scale designed to measure in-game schizotypal traits. All participants also filled out questionnaires assessing motivations for gaming and disordered use of MMORPGs. Results of the study showed that the disorganized and interpersonal traits of schizotypy decreased when participants were thinking about themselves in the virtual world. Schizotypal traits, together with achievement and immersion motives, predicted problematic use of MMORPGs. The findings of this study may suggest that schizotypal traits and motivations for playing can interact and play a pivotal role in the onset and maintenance of problematic gaming.     

Challenging games help students learn: An empirical study on engagement,flow and immersion in game-based learning

In this paper, we investigate the impact of flow (operationalized as heightened challenge and skill), engagement, and immersion on learning in game-based learning environments. The data was gathered through a survey from players (N = 173) of two learning games (Quantum Spectre: N = 134 and Spumone: N = 40). The results show that engagement in the game has a clear positive effect on learning, however, we did not find a significant effect between immersion in the game and learning. Challenge of the game had a positive effect on learning both directly and via the increased engagement. Being skilled in the game did not affect learning directly but by increasing engagement in the game. Both the challenge of the game and being skilled in the game had a positive effect on both being engaged and immersed in the game. The challenge in the game was an especially strong predictor of learning outcomes. For the design of educational games, the results suggest that the challenge of the game should be able to keep up with the learners growing abilities and learning in order to endorse continued learning in game-based learning environments.     

Sexism in online video games: The role of conformity to masculine norms and social dominance orientation

Sexism toward women in online video game environments has become a pervasive and divisive issue in the gaming community. In this study, we sought to determine what personality traits, demographic variables, and levels of game play predicted sexist attitudes towards women who play video games. Male and female participants (N = 301) who were players of networked video games were invited to participate in an anonymous online survey. Social dominance orientation and conformity to some types of masculine norms (desire for power over women and the need for heterosexual self-presentation) predicted higher scores on the Video Game Sexism Scale (i.e., greater sexist beliefs about women and gaming). Implications for the social gaming environment and female gamers are discussed.     

Does value matters in playing online game? An empirical study among massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs)

A few study examined the impact of value and aspects of behavioral intention in virtual environment. The aim of this study is to examine the impact of emotional value (VE), social value (VS), price-value for money (VP), performance-quality value (VQ) and repurchase intention (RI), willingness to pay a premium price (WTP) and word of mouth (WOM) among massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs). A total of 228 valid questionnaires were collected from cybercafé customers in Klang Valley-Malaysia. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed using partial least squares (PLS) analysis to assess measurement and structural model for reflective construct. Our result reveals that there is a positive relationship between VP and RI, VQ and RI while there is no positive relationship between VE and RI, VS and RI. VE, VP and VQ value positively impact WOM but VS does not. VE and VP have positive while VQ and VS did not explain WTP. This study contributes to literature on the new phenomena of online game and is considered as few studies in examining value in Second Life setting. The practical and social implications of study are discussed along with research limitation and implication.     

World of Warcraft and the impact of game culture and play in an undergraduate game design course

During the past two decades, digital games have become an increasingly popular source of study for academics, educational researchers and instructional designers. Much has been written about the potential of games for teaching and learning, both in the design of educational/serious games and the implementation of off-the-shelf games for learning. Yet relatively little research has been conducted about how game culture and the enmeshed practice of play may impact classroom dynamics. The purpose of this study is to present a case study about how the use of World of Warcraft (WoW) as a teaching tool and medium of play impacted class dynamics in an undergraduate university-level course for game design. Specifically, this study will address how WoW’s game culture and the practice of play impacted (a) student-to-student dynamics and (b) class dynamics. The goal of this study is to explore some of the dynamics of play as a component of learning.     

Video game training to improve selective visual attention in older adults

The current study investigated the effect of video game training on older adult’s useful field of view performance (the UFOV® test). Fifty-eight older adult participants were randomized to receive practice with the target action game (Medal of Honor), a placebo control arcade game (Tetris), a clinically validated UFOV training program, or into a no contact control group. Examining pretest–posttest change in selective visual attention, the UFOV improved significantly more than the game groups; all three intervention groups improved significantly more than no-contact controls. There was a lack of difference between the two game conditions, differing from findings with younger adults. Discussion considers whether games posing less challenge might still be effective interventions for elders, and whether optimal training dosages should be higher.     

Learning with quizzes,simulations, and adventures: Students' attitudes,perceptions and intentions to learn with different types of serious games

Students' attitudes, their perceptions of cognitive and affective quality as predictors of attitudes, and the resulting intention toward learning with serious games remains ambiguous, largely due to the use of imprecise measures. The presented studies have aimed to develop and test a measurement of students' attitudes, perceptions, and intentions to learn with serious games in general, and to use the instrument to examine differences for the most common types of serious games, that is quiz, simulation, and adventure. To this end, a pretest (n = 301) and two main studies (Study 1: n = 135, Study 2: n = 375) were conducted. The developed instrument shows high reliability and convergent validity. Results demonstrate positive attitudes, positive cognitive perceptions, and high positive and low negative affective perceptions of students toward learning with serious games in general, as well as with different game types. Findings from a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), however, indicate differences between the three game types that could be related to the perceptions of cognitive and affective quality. Predominately, compared to quizzes and adventures, simulations were perceived as more supportive for the comprehension and application of knowledge while promoting a less positive affect. Additionally, there was a significant difference due to gender. Whereas females reported higher perceptions of negative affective quality compared to males when serious games were addressed in general, answers to questions about the specific game types revealed a more detailed picture. In contrast to previous findings in existing literature, female students reported a more positive attitude, as well as higher perceptions of positive affective quality, than males for all three game types. These results stress the importance of examining the types of serious games separately and considering gender when evaluating students' attitudes and perceptions when learning with serious games.     

Multiplayer online games as educational tools: Facing new challenges in learning

This paper outlines a proposal for the development of educational multiplayer online games based on the activity theory, as an alternative to the current trend in multiplayer gaming and a means of promoting collaboration among students. In order to examine whether online games are engaging for learners, we consider multiple factors regarding game play – such as frequency of game use, gender differences, identification with the characters, and game preferences – as well as some psychosocial factors that may influence learning – such as academic performance, self-esteem, and computer self-efficacy. This paper suggests that online multiplayer educational games should be approached as a complex learning system, based on the principles of activity theory, where the Subjects would interact with other Subjects, Objects and Tools of the game, under specified Rules and create Communities through division of labor, leading to the expected learning outcome. Thus, we suggest taking into account some important issues concerning the Subjects that the activity theory refers to, such as gender differences in playing games, academic performance, self-esteem and computer self-efficacy.     

SCRUMIA—An educational game for teaching SCRUM in computing courses

Due to the increasing use of agile methods, teaching SCRUM as an agile project management methodology has become more and more important. In order to teach students to be able to apply SCRUM in concrete situations, often educational (simulation) games are used. However, most of these games have been developed more for professional trainings than taking into consideration typical restrictions of university courses (such as, class duration and low financial resources for instructional materials). Therefore, we present a manual paper and pencil game to reinforce and teach the application of SCRUM in undergraduate computing programmes complementing theoretical lectures. The game has been developed following a systematic instructional design process and based on our teaching experience. It has been applied several times in two undergraduate project management courses. We evaluated motivation, user experience and the game's contribution to learning through case studies on Kirkpatrick's level one based on the perception of the students. First results indicate the potential of the game to contribute to the learning of SCRUM in an engaging way, keeping students immersed in the learning task. In this regard, the game offers a low-budget alternative to complement traditional instructional strategies for teaching SCRUM in the classroom.     

Solving the balance problem of massively multiplayer online role-playing games using coevolutionary programming

In massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs), each race holds some attributes and skills. Each skill contains several abilities such as physical damage and hit rate. All those attributes and abilities are functions of the character's level, which are called Ability-Increasing Functions (AIFs). A well-balanced MMORPG is characterized by having a set of well-balanced AIFs. In this paper, we propose a coevolutionary design method, including integration with the modified probabilistic incremental program evolution (PIPE) and the cooperative coevolutionary algorithm (CCEA), to solve the balance problem of MMORPGs. Moreover, we construct a simplest turn-based game model and perform a series of experiments based on it. The results indicate that the proposed method is able to obtain a set of well-balanced AIFs more efficiently, compared with the simple genetic algorithm (SGA), the simulated annealing algorithm (SAA) and the hybrid discrete particle swarm optimization (HDPSO) algorithm. The results also show that the performance of PIPE has been significantly improved through the modification works.