Biofuels development in Sub-Saharan Africa: Are the policies conducive?

This paper analyses national, regional and international biofuels policies and strategies to assess whether these policies promote or undermine the development of biofuels sector in Africa. Despite having a huge comparative advantage in land, labour and good climatic conditions favourable for the growing of energy crops, few countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have included biofuels strategies in their energy or national development policies. Further results show that while developed countries commit huge financial resources for research, technology development and the provision of tax-incentives to both producers and consumers, there is little government support for promoting biofuels in Africa. Although the consequences of biofuels on food supply remain uncertain, the mandatory blending of biofuels with fossil fuels by industrialized countries will create demand for land in Africa for the growing of energy crops for biofuels. This paper urgently calls upon national governments in Sub-Saharan Africa to develop appropriate strategies and regulatory frameworks to harness the potential economic opportunities from biofuels sector development, while protecting the environment and rural communities from the adverse effects of land alienation from the mainstream agriculture towards the growing of energy crops for biofuels at the expense of traditional food crops.     

Socio-economic aspects of different biofuel development pathways

There are several policy drivers for biofuels on a larger scale in the EU transport sector, including increased security of energy supply, reduced emission of greenhouse gases (GHG), and new markets for the agricultural sector. The purpose of this socio-economic cost analysis is to provide an overview of the costs of meeting EU biofuels targets, taking into account several external costs and benefits. Biofuels are generally more expensive than traditional fossil fuels, but the expected increasing value of GHG emission reductions will over time reduce the cost gap. High crude oil prices significantly improve the economic benefit of biofuels, but increased demand for biomass for energy purposes is likely to increase the price of biofuels feedstock and biofuels costs. The key question is to what extent increasing oil prices will be passed on to biofuels costs. Socio-economic least costs for biofuels production require a market with a clear pricing of GHG emissions to ensure that this factor is included in the decision-making of actors in all links of the fuel chain.     

Transportation: meeting the dual challenges of achieving energy security and reducing greenhouse gas emissions

As the population and economy continue to grow globally, demand for energy will continue to grow. The transportation sector relies solely on petroleum for its energy supply. The United States and China are the top two oil-importing countries. A major issue both countries face and are addressing is energy insecurity as a result of the demand for liquid fuels. Improvements in the energy efficiency of vehicles and the substitution of petroleum fuels with alternative fuels can help contain growth in the demand for transportation oil. Although most alternative transportation fuels — when applied to advanced vehicle technologies — can substantially reduce greenhouse emissions, coal-based liquid fuels may increase greenhouse gas emissions by twice as much as gasoline. Such technologies as carbon capture and storage may need to be employed to manage the greenhouse gas emissions of coal-based fuels. At present, there is no ideal transportation fuel option to solve problems related to transportation energy and greenhouse gas emissions. To solve these problems, research and development efforts are needed for a variety of transportation fuel options and advanced vehicle technologies.     

我国生物质能源现代化应用前景展望(一)——生物质资源和供给

生物质能除了可以在改善世界一次能源结构、降低化石能源需求量方面做出重要贡献以外,还可在减少温室气体排放、保障能源供应安全、改善贸易平衡、促进农村发展和改进城市废弃物处理方式等方面发挥作用。目前全球每年一次能源消费总量为500EJ,生物质资源的年用量约占一次能源消费总量的10%左右,主要被用于传统的民用燃料和生产第一代生物燃料。第二代生物燃料技术预计将于2020年前后在一些国家实现工业化生产。IEA预测,2050年世界一次能源需求量为670EJ,生物质资源将占一次能源需求总量的20%左右。各方学者预测的2050年全球生物质资源量最低值基本在200~400EJ之间,最高值在400~1500EJ之间。中国的生物燃料产业尚处于起步阶段,不过应该说取得了良好的开端。我国生物质资源相对较少,且分布不均,发展生物质能产品需要依靠能源作物。只有通过合理开发、有效利用,才能在不与粮食和食用油争夺土地的前提下,在一定程度上提供生物运输燃料和生物质发电供热所需的原料,生物质能-农产品和/或生物质能-林产品联合生产系统应成为主要发展方向。美国生物燃料产业的发展模式对我国具有一定的借鉴意义。生物质最有效的利用方式是生产运输燃料,从长远来看,生物燃料可以与石油燃料竞争,尤其是喷气燃料和汽油更具替代优势,但受到生物质资源供应量的制约。     

Greenhouse gas balances of transportation biofuels,electricity and heat generation in Finland—Dealing with the uncertainties

One way to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector is to replace fossil fuels by biofuels. However, production of biofuels also generates greenhouse gas emissions. Energy and greenhouse gas balances of transportation biofuels suitable for large-scale production in Finland have been assessed in this paper. In addition, the use of raw materials in electricity and/or heat production has been considered. The overall auxiliary energy input per energy content of fuel in biofuel production was 3–5-fold compared to that of fossil fuels. The results indicated that greenhouse gas emissions from the production and use of barley-based ethanol or biodiesel from turnip rape are very probably higher compared to fossil fuels. Second generation biofuels produced using forestry residues or reed canary grass as raw materials seem to be more favourable in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, the use of raw materials in electricity and/or heat production is even more favourable. Significant uncertainties are involved in the results mainly due to the uncertainty of N₂O emissions from fertilisation and emissions from the production of the electricity consumed or replaced.     

The policy perspective for RES development in the new member states of the EU

The energy sector of the European Union (EU) is based mainly on fossil fuels and almost two-thirds of the energy demand is imported. In the future, fossil fuels are expected to strengthen their participation in the European energy balance and imports will amount to 70% of overall energy needs. On the other hand, the development of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) is a central aim of the European Commission's energy policy. RES hold a significant share in the 10 new countries recently joined the EU and the adoption of RES-related policies is of imperative importance for the joint cooperation of the new member states with the EU. This paper includes a review of RES status, related policies and prospects in each of the 10-new member states of EU.     

Are HFC buses a feasible alternative for urban transportation in Paraguay?

Paraguay is very rich in hydropower and a net importer of fossil fuels. Besides, in Paraguay, the transportation sector counts for a big share of the total energy demand. So if this sector would be changed to clean fuel, imported oil dependence and air pollution will be reduced dramatically. This paper assesses the feasibility of HFC urban buses implementation in the transportation sector in Paraguay. In general, annual transportation cost for a fleet of 55 HFC urban buses is estimated in US$ 33,682,581 compared with US$ 40,612,741.84 for diesel urban buses, which indicates that this technology could be an economical and environmentally clean alternative to substitute diesel urban buses in the Paraguayan transportation sector. These results are strongly linked to the chosen boundary conditions, such as electricity price and availability, the electrolytic hydrogen demand and the basic electrolyser's management.     

Cost-effectiveness analysis of algae energy production in the EU

Today’s society relies heavily on fossil fuels as a main energy source. Global energy demand increase, energy security and climate change are the main drivers of the transition towards alternative energy sources. This paper analyses algal biodiesel production for the EU road transportation and compares it to the fossil fuels and 1st generation biofuels. A cost-effectiveness analysis was used to aggregate private and external costs and derive the social cost of each fuel. The following externalities were internalized: emissions (GHG and non-GHG), food prices impact, pesticides/fertilizers use and security of supply. Currently the social cost of producing algal biodiesel at 52.3 € GJ⁻¹ is higher than rapeseed biodiesel (36.0 € GJ⁻¹) and fossil fuels (15.8 € GJ⁻¹). Biotechnology development, high crude oil prices and high carbon value are the key features of the scenario where algal biodiesel outcompetes all other fuels. A substantial investment into the biotechnology sector and comprehensive environmental research and policy are required to make that scenario a reality.     

Strategies for a road transport system based on renewable resources – The case of an import-independent Sweden in 2025

When discussing how society can decrease greenhouse gas emissions, the transport sector is often seen as posing one of the most difficult problems. In addition, the transport sector faces problems related to security of supply. The aim of this paper is to present possible strategies for a road transport system based on renewable energy sources and to illustrate how such a system could be designed to avoid dependency on imports, using Sweden as an example. The demand-side strategies considered include measures for decreasing the demand for transport, as well as various technical and non-technical means of improving vehicle fuel economy. On the supply side, biofuels and synthetic fuels produced from renewable electricity are discussed. Calculations are performed to ascertain the possible impact of these measures on the future Swedish road transport sector. The results underline the importance of powerful demand-side measures and show that although biofuels can certainly contribute significantly to an import-independent road transport sector, they are far from enough even in a biomass-rich country like Sweden. Instead, according to this study, fuels based on renewable electricity will have to cover more than half of the road transport sector’s energy demand.     

Will restrictions on CO2 emissions require reductions in transport demand?

In this paper, the potential for the transportation sector to develop in a way that is consistent with long-term climate targets will be discussed. An important question is whether technical measures will be sufficient for reaching long-term climate targets. Although there is a large potential to significantly increase the use of bioenergy from today's level, there will be severe restrictions to its use within the transportation sector. Other renewable energy sources such as wind and solar are much more abundant and could provide the majority of the necessary transportation fuel in the long run. Although potentially much more expensive than current fuels they could, in combination with strong efficiency improvements, provide transport services at costs that could be acceptable in a growing economy. Transport levels as high as today or even higher could be consistent from a climate perspective if such fuels and technologies are utilised. Relying only on technical measures would, however, be risky, as there is no guarantee that the technology will develop at a sufficient rate. Furthermore, the existence of other negative environmental effects would argue for the implementation of measures affecting transport demand as well.     

Review on fuel economy standard and label for vehicle in selected ASEAN countries

Sustainable supply of energy at affordable prices is vital to ensure the human development. ASEAN is committed pursuing for a clean and green region with fully established mechanisms for sustainable development to ensure the protection of regional environment, resources and the high quality of people's life. Nowadays, energy use in the transportation sector represents an important issue in ASEAN countries. Therefore, it is believed that the introduction of fuel economy standards and labels is the key to save energy in this sector. Fuel economy standards and labels are relatively cheap measure to influence consumer behaviour and to induce car manufacturers to produce more efficient vehicles. Fuel economy standards and labels for vehicle are being implemented in many countries around the world to save fuel consumption and mitigate CO₂ emission. This paper is a review on fuel economy standard and labels for vehicle in some selected ASEAN countries such as Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. It has been found that Singapore is the leading country in ASEAN that has implemented fuel economy standards and labels. Moreover, it has been found that the implementation of cleaner fuels standard play a crucial role in protecting public health and the environment from transportation sector emissions. The most common alternative fuels used in ASEAN are biodiesel, ethanol, methanol, propane, hydrogen and natural gas.     

Carbon capture and storage potential in coal-fired plant in Malaysia—A review

Secure, reliable and affordable energy supplies are necessary for sustainable economic growth, but increases in associated carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, and the associated risk of climate change are a cause of major concern. Experts have projected that the CO₂ emissions related to the energy sector will increase 130% by 2050 in the absence of new policies or supply constraints as a result of increased fossil fuel usage. To address this issue will require an energy technology revolution involving greater energy efficiency, increased renewable energies and nuclear power, and the near-decarbonisation of fossil fuel-based power generation. Nonetheless, fossil fuel usage is expected to continue to dominate global energy supply. The only technology available to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from large-scale fossil fuel usage is carbon capture and storage (CCS), an essential part of the portfolio of technologies that is needed to achieve deep global emission reductions. However, CCS technology faces numerous issues and challenges before it can be successfully deployed. With Malaysia has recently pledged a 40% carbon reduction by 2020 in the Copenhagen 2009 Climate Summit, CCS technology is seen as a viable option in order to achieve its target. Thus, this paper studies the potential and feasibility of coal-fired power plant with CCS technology in Malaysia which includes the choices of coal plants and types of capture technologies possible for implementation.     

A prospective study of bioenergy use in Mexico

Bioenergy is one of the renewable energy sources that can readily replace fossil fuels, while helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promoting sustainable rural development. This paper analyses the feasibility of future scenarios based on moderate and high use of biofuels in the transportation and electricity generation sectors with the aim of determining their possible impact on the Mexican energy system. Similarly, it evaluates the efficient use of biofuels in the residential sector, particularly in the rural sub-sector. In this context, three scenarios are built within a time frame that goes from 2005 to 2030. In the base scenario, fossil fuels are assumed as the dominant source of energy, whereas in the two alternative scenarios moderate and high biofuel penetration diffusion curves are constructed and discussed on the basis of their technical and economical feasibility. Simulation results indicate that the use of ethanol, biodiesel and electricity obtained from primary biomass may account for 16.17% of the total energy consumed in the high scenario for all selected sectors. CO₂ emissions reduction—including the emissions saved from the reduction in the non-sustainable use of fuelwood in the rural residential sector—is equivalent to 87.44 million tons of CO₂ and would account for 17.84% of the CO₂ emitted by electricity supply and transportation sectors when the base case and the high scenario are compared by 2030.     

Role of energy policy in renewable energy accomplishment: The case of second-generation bioethanol

Renewable energy has been in the limelight ever since the price of crude petroleum oil increases to the unprecedented height of US$96 per barrel recently. This is due to the diminishing oil reserves in the world and political instabilities in some oil-exporting countries. The advantages of renewable energy compared to fossil fuels are enormous in terms of environment and availability. Biofuels like bioethanol and biodiesel are currently being produced from agricultural products such as sugarcane and rapeseed oil, respectively. Collectively, these biofuels from food sources are known as first-generation biofuels. Although first-generation biofuels have the potential to replace fossil fuels as the main source of energy supply, its production is surrounded by certain issues like tropical forests’ destruction. Instead, second-generation bioethanol, which utilizes non-edible sources such as lignocellulose biomass to produce ethanol, has been shown to be more suitable as the source of renewable energy. However, there are challenges and obstacles such as cost, technology and environmental issues that need to be overcome. Hence, the introduction of energy policy is crucial in promoting and implementing second-generation bioethanol effectively and subsequently become a major source of renewable energy.     

World trade in forest products and wood fuel

Wood fuel is a strategic resource for future energy supply and is usually utilised locally. Traditional use of wood fuel and other bioenergy has a share of 10–15% energy supply, used mainly for the household sector. The utilisation for industrial purposes is much smaller but is a strategic resource in the effort to fulfil the Kyoto agreement to replace fossil fuels and to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Many industrialised countries already use a significant share of biofuels in their energy supply e.g. Nordic countries while others like some other European Union countries are planning to increase their use. Production and use of biofuels need to be carried out sustainable. Official statistics do not report trade in such detail that international trade in different biomass types can be fully identified. However, FAO and European Forestry Institute are important sources. In some countries, there is a growing interest in the international trade, because the trade can provide biofuels at lower prices, larger quantities and better quality than domestic alternatives. The first signs of an international market price for wood fuel are indicated in Europe. For the future both the use and the trade of wood fuel is expected to increase. Analyses for trade in charcoal, wood chips, fuel wood and wood residues made in this report identify ‘hot’ trade spots in Europe, in south East Asia and in North America.     

全球视野下的中国能源

中国能源真正的忧患存在于2020年以后,届时中国液体燃料的消费将十分巨大,如若继续按现有模式发展,对世界石油格局产生的影响将是重大的。我们必须从现在起,认真对待和深入研究煤基液体燃料等前瞻性的问题。本文认为全球能源需求增长总体平稳,资源不会成为能源供应的限制性因素;强调交通领域能源消费的增长,不仅是发达国家,而且也是发展中国家能源增长的主要动力和源泉。未来的中国能源问题,将更直接地表现为液体燃料的供应问题,煤基液体燃料是最有可能大规模替代石油的新型燃料。     

Assessment of transport fuel taxation strategies through integration of road transport in an energy system model—the case of Sweden

Road transport is responsible for a large and growing share of CO₂ emissions in most countries. A number of new fuel‐efficient vehicle technologies and renewable transport fuels are possible alternatives to conventional options but their deployment relies strongly on different policy measures. Even though a future higher use of transport biofuels and electric vehicles is likely to increase the interaction between the transportation sector and the stationary energy system (heat, power, etc.), these systems are often analysed separately. In this study, a transport module is developed and integrated into the MARKAL_Nordic energy system model. The transport module describes a range of vehicle technologies and fuel options as well as different paths for conversion of primary energy resources into transport fuels. The integrated model is utilized to analyse the impact of transport fuel tax designs on future cost‐effective fuel and technology choices in the Swedish transportation sector, as well as the consequences of these choices on system costs and CO₂ emissions. The model, which is driven by cost‐minimization, is run to 2050 with various assumptions regarding transport fuel tax levels and tax schemes. The results stress the importance of fuel taxes to accelerate the introduction of fuel‐efficient vehicle technologies such as hybrids and plug‐in hybrids. Tax exemptions can make biofuels an economically favourable choice for vehicle users. However, due to limitations in biomass supply, a too strong policy‐focus on transport biofuels can lead to high system costs in relation to the CO₂ abatement achieved. The modelling performed indicates that the effects caused by linkages between the transportation sector and the stationary energy system can be significant and integrated approaches are thus highly relevant. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Electric power required in the world by 2050 with hydrogen fuel production—Revised

Since estimation of electric power requirement for large-scale production of hydrogen fuel for the world vehicle fleet based on data through 1995 in 2001, a large increase in available travel data has become available, sufficient to revise the estimates with greater confidence. It is apparent that much more energy will be required, as worldwide demand for electrification and substitution of hydrogen for fossil fuel in transportation grows over the next 50 years. Published forecasts for electricity demand over the next 30 years show mean annual growth rates ranging from 1.7 to 3.4%/a, which when extrapolated from the present consumption of 16 PWh in 2002 to the year 2050 suggests an annual electricity demand in the range of 36–82 PWh. In addition to the business-as-usual growth in demand, estimation of the growth of the world automotive vehicle fleet from about 900 million vehicles in 2010, consuming about 360 billion gallons of petrol, to about 1.5 billion vehicles in 2050, which could be operated with about 260 billion kilogram of hydrogen fuel, would result in additional electricity demand of about 10 PWh annually for replacement of fossil fuels in transportation. With approximately 175 PW of solar power reaching earth and world fossil fuel reserves of 50–200 years remaining at present consumption rates, the question arises of how much of the world's future electric energy supply will be required (if any) from nuclear fuels.     

Design of a future hydrogen supply chain: A multi period model for Turkey

There is no doubt that energy will have one of highest priorities in agendas of strategic plans of countries. Since fossil fuels are running out and carbon emissions are more important than ever, researchers seek alternative clean and efficient energy sources. One of the best alternatives is hydrogen. The systems in which hydrogen flows from its production to end users are called hydrogen supply chains (HSC). Since hydrogen is not in active use, its HSC infrastructure is not complete and should be planned very carefully. We study the design of HSC of Turkey to meet the hydrogen demand of the period between 2021 and 2050. Our aim is to minimize total cost of the HSC while meeting the demand of the transportation sector. We address the problem by using a mixed integer programming (MIP) model and derive several insights for the future HSC. The results show that while decentralization (being able to fulfill the demand from local production facilities) is 12% in the first period, this rate raises up to 48% by the end of the planning horizon. Analysis also reveal that almost all grids do not produce and import hydrogen simultaneously, i.e., they either produce or import hydrogen. The results are robust in the sense that solutions of different optimality gaps have minor differences in terms of established facilities.     

Recent trends,opportunities and challenges of biodiesel in Malaysia: An overview

Energy supply and its security issues have been the topic of interest lately. With growing environmental awareness about the negative implications brought by excessive usage of fossil fuels, the race for finding alternative energy as their substitutions is getting heated up. For now, renewable energy from biodiesel has been touted as one of the most promising substitutions for petroleum-derived diesel. Combustion of biodiesel as fuel is more environment-friendly while retaining most of the positive engine properties of petroleum-derived diesel. Production of biodiesel is also a proven technology with established commercialization activities. The huge potential of biodiesel coupled with the abundance of palm oil which is one of the most cost-effective feedstocks for biodiesel is responsible for the pledging of Malaysia to become the leading producer of high quality biodiesel in the region. Currently, total approved installed capacity of biodiesel production in Malaysia equals to almost 92% of the world biodiesel production output in 2008. While Malaysia does indeed possessed materials, technologies and marketing superiority to vie for that position, many more challenges are still awaiting. The price restriction, provisions controversy, escalating non-tariff trade barriers and negligible public support need to be addressed appropriately. In this review, Malaysia's previous and current position in global biodiesel market, its future potential towards the prominent leading biodiesel status and major disrupting obstacles are being discussed. The feasibility of utilizing algae as the up-and-coming biodiesel feedstock in Malaysia is also under scrutiny. Lastly, several recommendations on the roles played by three major forces in Malaysia's biodiesel industry are presented to tackle the shortcomings in achieving the coveted status by Malaysia. It is hope that Malaysia's progress in biodiesel industry will not only benefit itself but rather as the role model to catalyst the development of global biofuels industry as a whole.