Wind energy in the world: Reality and prospects

This report presents an overview of the various aspects of the use of wind energy for the production of electricity with special regard to: available resources; the state-of-the art of the technology; the worldwide wind energy applications; the present situation and foreseeable development of the world wind energy market in the next two decades; the economics of wind-generated electricity. Possible restraints to and benefits from wind plant integration in utility systems are also considered.     

Wind energy development in the Caribbean

The Caribbean has the potential for a significant increase in windpowered electricity production. A number of wind farm projects are being implemented, making wind potentially the fastest growing renewable energy technology in the region over the next two decades. Wind promises to provide more than 10 per cent of the electricity in many Caribbean countries by the year 2020.     

Wind energy development policy and prospects in Lithuania

According to the EU Directive 2001/77/EC 7% of all electricity production is to be generated from renewable energy sources (RES) in Lithuania in 2010. Electricity production from RES is determined by hydro, biomass and wind energy resources in Lithuania. Further development of hydro power plants is limited by environmental restrictions, therefore priority is given to wind energy development. The aim of this paper is to show estimation of the maximum wind power penetration in the Lithuanian electricity system using such criteria as wind potential, possibilities of the existing electricity network, possible environmental impact, and social and economical aspects. Generalization of data from the meteorological stations and special measurements shows that the highest average wind speed in Lithuanian territory is in the coastal region and at 50 m above ground level reaches 6.4 m/s. In regard to wind resource distribution in this region, arrangement of electricity grid and environment protection requirements, six zones have been determined for wind power plant construction. Calculations have shown that the largest total installed capacity of wind farms, which could cause no significant increase in power transmission expenses, is 170 MW. The threshold, which cannot be passed without capital reconstruction of electricity network, is 500 MW of total capacity of wind farms.     

Island wind-hydrogen energy: A significant potential US resource

Islands offer the advantages of notional deep ocean wind stations without the problems of mounting wind turbines in a hostile marine environment. In principle, island wind-power stations could take advantage of rich (up to Class 7) wind resources. Because connection to an electricity grid will be difficult for most island-based systems, electrical energy could be converted into hydrogen (by electrolyzing seawater) and stored for use on the island or shipped to the mainland. To attain the benefits of high-speed wind-turbine systems, several technical and policy issues, dealing with wind resources, specialized wind-turbine equipment, and the political and economic potential of island wind stations, need to be addressed. Until such multifaceted research can be completed, the technical potential for island-based wind turbines will remain just that—potential.     

Wind energy status in India: A short review

Renewable energy represents an area of tremendous opportunity for India. Energy is considered a prime agent in the generation of wealth and a significant factor in economic development. Energy is also essential for improving the quality of life. Development of conventional forms of energy for meeting the growing energy needs of society at a reasonable cost is the responsibility of the Government. Limited fossil resources and associated environmental problems have emphasized the need for new sustainable energy supply options. India depends heavily on coal and oil for meeting its energy demand which contributes to smog, acid rain and greenhouse gases’ emission. Last 25 years has been a period of intense activities related to research, development, production and distribution of energy in India.Though major energy sources for electrical power are coal and natural gas, development and promotion of non-conventional sources of energy such as solar, wind and bio-energy, are also getting sustained attention. The use of electricity has grown since it can be used in variety of applications as well as it can be easily transmitted, the uses of renewable energy like wind and solar is rising. Wind energy is a clean, eco-friendly, renewable resource and is nonpolluting. The gross wind power potential is estimated at around 48,561 MW in the country; a capacity of 14,989.89 MW up to 31st August 2011 has so far been added through wind, which places India in the fifth position globally. This paper discusses the ways in which India has already supported the growth of renewable energy technologies i.e. wind energy and its potential to expand their contribution to world growth in a way that is consistent with world's developmental and environmental goals. The paper presents current status, major achievements and future aspects of wind energy in India.     

Climate change impacts on wind energy: A review

Expansion of wind energy installed capacity is poised to play a key role in climate change mitigation. However, wind energy is also susceptible to global climate change. Some changes associated with climate evolution will likely benefit the wind energy industry while other changes may negatively impact wind energy developments, with such ‘gains and losses’ depending on the region under consideration. Herein we review possible mechanisms by which global climate variability and change may influence the wind energy resource and operating conditions, summarize some of the tools that are being employed to quantify these effects and the sources of uncertainty in making such projections, and discuss results of studies conducted to date. We present illustrative examples of research from northern Europe. Climate change analyses conducted for this region, which has shown considerable penetration of wind energy, imply that in the near-term (i.e. to the middle of the current century) natural variability exceeds the climate change signal in the wind energy resource and extreme wind speeds, but there will likely be a decline in icing frequency and sea ice both of which will tend to benefit the wind energy industry. By the end of the twenty-first century there is evidence for small magnitude changes in the wind resource (though the sign of the change remains uncertain), for increases in extreme wind speeds, and continued declines in sea ice and icing frequencies. Thus the current state-of-the-art suggests no detectable change in the wind resource or other external conditions that could jeopardize the continued exploitation of wind energy in northern Europe, though further research is needed to provide greater confidence in these projections.     

Wind energy development in west of Romania

The paper attempts the assessment of a part of design and erection activities in wind energy field, in western Romania, from Electromontaj S.A. one new 100 % private company.So I shall refer to achievements of construction and erection:First the 3 MW demonstrative wind farm in Banat Mountain, and second the programmes for erection of experimental small wind turbines for operation in isolated settlements, in the power range 0,5–10 KW, and erection PV/Wind Turbines/Battery Systems, in small villages where are many lonely houses, who haven't electricity, for first time in our country.     

Hydrogen: A brief overview on its sources,production and environmental impact

A brief overview is presented involving the terms of availability of hydrogen, its properties and possible sources and its production methods, and finally, its relationship with renewable energy utilisation, environment and climate.Solar hydrogen, preferably obtained from water, is confirmed once more to be the most environment and climate compatible (causing the least damage), energy source; though not necessarily the most economic one. Production cost of hydrogen obtained from terrestrial biomass, is not the lowest either, however carbon-neutral feature of terrestrial biomass renders it highly desirable in view of steep rise in global temperature.     

Wind energy for the 1990s and beyond

Electrical power must be available to the consumer in any amount upon demand. Conventional methods of power generation, such as the burning of fossil fuels, hydroelectric plants, and nuclear power plants, have considerable shortcomings. Governmental regulations have increased in quantity and have raised the already rigid standards of producing electric power without further damage to the environment. Electrical power produced by wind energy conversion systems are undergoing extensive research and revitalization as a viable solution to clean air power generation. The basic challenge to scientists and engineers is to develop wind energy conversion systems that produce adequate amounts of power, but at a cost comparable to present conventional methods. This article discusses the background and impact of the modern wind energy conversion system on future power generation.     

Wind energy and assessment of wind energy potential in Turkey

In this study, the potential of wind energy and assessment of wind energy systems in Turkey were studied. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the wind energy potential and future wind conversion systems project in Turkey. The wind energy potential of various regions was investigated; and the exploitation of the wind energy in Turkey was discussed. Various regions were analyzed taking into account the wind data measured as hourly time series in the windy locations. The wind data used in this study were taken from Electrical Power Resources Survey and Development Administration (EIEI) for the year 2010. This paper reviews the assessment of wind energy in Turkey as of the end of May 2010 including wind energy applications. Turkey's total theoretically available potential for wind power is around 131,756.40 MW and sea wind power 17,393.20 MW annually, according to TUREB (TWEA). When Turkey has 1.5 MW nominal installed wind energy capacity in 1998, then this capacity has increased to 1522.20 MW in 2010. Wind power plant with a total capacity of 1522.20 MW will be commissioned 2166.65 MW in December 2011.     

Assessing offshore wind resources: An accessible methodology

This paper describes a method for assessing the electric production and value of wind resources, specifically for the offshore environment. Three steps constitute our method. First, we map the available area, delimiting bathymetric areas based on turbine tower technology, then assess competing uses of the ocean to establish exclusion zones. From exclusion zones, bathymetry, and turbine tower water depth limitations, the water sheet area available for wind turbines is calculated. The second step is calculation of power production starting from available area, which determines the location and count of turbines. Then existing wind data are extrapolated to turbine height and, along with the turbine power output curve, they are used to establish the expected electric power production on an hourly basis. The third step calculates market value based on the hourly electric market at the nearest electric grid node.To illustrate these methods, we assess the offshore wind resource of the US state of Delaware. We find year-round average output of over 5200 MW, or about four times the average electrical consumption of the state. On local wholesale electricity markets, this would produce just over $2 billion/year in revenue.Because the methods described here do not rely on constructing meteorological towers nor on proprietary software, they are more accessible to a local government, state college, or other organization. For example, these methods can be carried out as an initial assessment of resources, or by a government or public entity as a check on claims by private applicants.     

西班牙风电高比例消纳研究及启示

西班牙风电并网容量居世界前列,且其风电消纳屡创新高,是我国风电消纳的标杆。本文对西班牙如何实现高风电消纳比例进行了详细的分析,并分别从电源结构、负荷特性以及管理和政策等方面说明了西班牙能取得如此的成绩决非偶然。最后对我国的实际情况进行了简要分析,并根据分析结果给出了西班牙高风电消纳比例对我国风电消纳的启示,指出我国目前存在的不足以及提高我国风电消纳能力的措施。     

陆上风电场建设对生态环境的影响及缓解措施

以上海崇明前卫风电场为例,简述陆上风电场施工期和运行期对生态环境影响。施工期生态环境的影响主要表现在施工场区植物量的损失。运行期生态环境的影响主要表现对鸟类活动的影响。通过落实生态保护减缓措施后,陆上风电场对生态环境的影响可以降低到最低程度。     

An exergy-based framework for evaluating environmental impact

The analysis framework introduced in this paper utilizes the recognition that exergy is a form of environmental free energy to provide a fundamental basis for valuing environmental interactions independent from their secondary impacts (e.g., global warming, photochemical smog). In order to extend exergy to analyze environmental interactions, modifications are required to the traditional representation of the environment and definition of the dead state used in technical exergy analysis. These are accomplished through a combination of logical extensions and use of non-equilibrium thermodynamic principles. The framework is comprised of two separate components: (1) environmental exergy analysis and (2) anthropocentric sensitivity analysis. Environmental exergy analysis is based on fundamental thermodynamic principles and analysis techniques. It extends the principles of technical exergy analysis to the environment in order to quantify the locations, magnitudes, and types of environmental impact—state change, alteration of natural transfers, and destruction change. Anthropocentric sensitivity analysis is based on the concepts of anthropocentric value and anthropocentric sensitivity. It enables the results of environmental exergy analysis to be interpreted for decision making, but at the expense of introducing some subjectivity into the framework. A key attribute of the framework is its ability to evaluate and compare the environmental performance of energy systems on a level playing field, regardless of the specifics of the systems—resources, by-products, sizes, time scales.     

Wind characteristics and wind energy potential in Morocco

The wind characteristics of 11 sites in the windy regions in Morocco have been analysed. The annual average wind speed for the considered sites ranged from 5 m/s to 10 m/s and the average power density from 100 W/m² to 1000 W/m², which might be suitable for electrical power production by installing wind farms. On an annual scale the observations of the distribution of hourly wind speed are better fitted by the Weibull hybrid distribution in contrast to the Weibull distribution.The wind power is estimated to be 1817 MW, that is to say, the exploitable wind energy is 15198 GWh, which represents theoretically 11% of the total consumed energy in Morocco in 1994.     

Wind power in China: Policy and development challenges

The capacity of the Chinese wind power sector has increased rapidly over the past half-decade, essentially doubling every year since 2005. The purpose of this paper is to describe the industry’s recent development and to discuss some of the policies and policy challenges related to the particular business environment in China. Three issues are highlighted: pricing policies, transmission capacity, and the structure of the equipment manufacturing industry, where substantial overcapacity is emerging as a serious problem.     

A comparison of offshore wind power development in europe and the U.S.: Patterns and drivers of development

Since the turn of the 21^st century, the onshore wind industry has seen significant growth due to the falling cost of wind generated electricity. This growth has coincided with an interest in the development of offshore wind farms. In Europe, governments and developers have begun establishing small to medium sized wind farms offshore to take advantage of stronger and more constant winds and the relative lack of landowner conflicts. In the U.S., several developers are in the planning and resource evaluation phases of offshore wind farm development, but no wind farms are currently operational or under construction. In this paper, we analyze the patterns of development in Europe and compare them to the U.S. We find significant differences in the patterns of development in Europe and the U.S. which may impact the viability of the industry in the U.S. We also discuss the policies used by European nations to stimulate offshore wind development and we discuss the potential impacts of similar policies in the U.S.     

Renewable energy sources in the Egyptian electricity market: A review

This review paper presents an appraisal of renewable energy RE options in Egypt. An appraisal review of different REs is presented. The study shows that electric energy produced from REs in Egypt are very poor compared with other energy sources. The utilization of the renewable energies can also be a good opportunity to fight the desertification and dryness in Egypt which is about 60% of Egypt territory. The rapid growth of energy production and consumption is strongly affecting and being affected by the Egyptian economy in many aspects. It is evident that energy will continue to play an important role in the development of Egypt's economy in coming years. The total installed electricity generating capacity had reached around 22025 MW with a generating capacity reached 22605 MW at the end of 2007. Hydropower and coal has no significant potential increase. During the period 1981/82-2004/05 electricity generation has increased by 500% from nearly 22 TWh for the year 1981/1982 to 108.4 TWh in the year 2004/2005 at an average annual growth rate of 6.9%. Consequently, oil and gas consumed by the electricity sector has jumped during the same period from around 3.7 MTOE to nearly 21 MTOE. The planned installed capacity for the year 2011/2012 is 28813 MW and the required fuel (oil and gas) for the electricity sector is estimated to reach about 29 MTOE by the same year. The renewable energy strategy targets to supply 3% of the electricity production from renewable resources by the year 2010. Electrical Coverage Electrical energy has been provided for around 99.3% of Egypt's population, representing a positive sign for the welfare of the Egyptian citizen due to electricity relation to all development components in all walks of life. The article discusses perspectives of wind energy in Egypt with projections to generate ∼ 3.5 GWe by 2022, representing ∼9% of the total installed power at that time (40.2 GW). Total renewables (hydro + wind + solar) are expected to provide ∼7.4 GWe by 2022 representing ∼ 19% of the total installed power. Such a share would reduce dependence on depleting oil and gas resources, and hence improve country's sustainable development.     

Wind shear coefficients and energy yield for Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

This study presents calculated values of wind shear coefficients (WSE) using measured values of wind speed at 20, 30, and 40 m above ground level (AGL), for Dhahran, Saudi Arabia. The study also includes the air density estimated using measured air temperature and surface pressure and effect of wind shear coefficient on energy yield from a wind farm of 60 MW installed capacity developed using 40 wind turbines of 1500 kW size. The data used in the determination of wind shear coefficient covered a period of almost 5 years between 4 October 1995 and 30 November 2000.The study suggests a value of 0.189 of wind shear coefficient for the calculation of wind speed at different heights if measured values are known at one height. No regular seasonal trend was observed in the values of wind shear coefficients. In case of diurnal variation, higher values were observed during nighttime and early hours of the day and comparatively smaller values during day light hours. The air density, calculated using measured temperature and pressure was found to be 1.18 kg/m³. The energy yield obtained using RetScreen software, showed that the actual wind shear coefficient presented in this paper produced around 11–12% more energy compared to that obtained using 1/7 power law. Accordingly, 2–3% higher plant capacity factors were achieved using actual site-dependent wind shear coefficient instead of 1/7th wind power law exponent for the calculation of wind speed at hub-height.