初始应力对瑞利波无损评价45钢表层应力的影响

基于瑞利波声弹效应理论,在瑞利波无损表征45钢表层应力的基础上分析了45钢表层初始应力状态对应力评价结果的影响。采用声程固定不变中心频率为5MHz的双瑞利波探头对45钢表层应力进行评价,在归一化互相关函数基础上计算了应力引起的瑞利波信号间时间差。结果表明:初始应力不会影响瑞利波在45钢表层中传播速度随拉伸应力的变化规律,即随拉伸应力的增加,瑞利波在45钢表层中的传播速度基本呈线性规律增加,当应力达到一定值时,再随应力的增加,瑞利波传播速度不再呈线性规律变化;但初始应力和去应力退火状态45钢的名义瑞利波声弹性系数不同,分别为0.838和1.041,最大时间差对应的应力值也不同,去应力退火前后应力评价结果的误差约为22%。     

Experimental study of hydrogen embrittlement on AISI 304 stainless steels and Rayleigh wave characterization

Many failures due to hydrogen embrittlement or hydrogen damage are widely reported in oil and refinery industry. Despite many ultrasonic testing methods have been developed to assess hydrogen embrittlement, they are applied well to serious hydrogen attack instead of earlier degradation. This paper aims to characterize nascent hydrogen embrittlement of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steels under cathodic hydrogenation using Rayleigh wave. After cathodic hydrogen charging of AISI 304 stainless steel, XRD and metallographic examination show that martensite transformation occurs within the subsurface region of the specimens. Microhardness testing indicates that hydrogen leads to hardening of the material. It is found that Rayleigh wave are better to inspect local degradation than bulk waves. Rayleigh wave velocity of 5 MHz and 10 MHz decreases significantly with cathodic charging time, while longitudinal wave velocity changes not. Acoustic velocity change is due to elastic modulus reduction resulting from hydrogen-induced phase transformation in the subsurface region.     

A new point contact surface acoustic wave transducer for measurement of acoustoelastic effect of polymethylmethacrylate

A new acoustic transducer and measurement method have been developed for precise measurement of surface wave velocity. This measurement method is used to investigate the acoustoelastic effects for waves propagating on the surface of a polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) sample. The transducer uses two miniature conical PZT elements for acoustic wave transmitter and receiver on the sample surface; hence, it can be viewed as a point- source/point-receiver transducer. Acoustic waves are excited and detected with the PZT elements, and the wave velocity can be accurately determined with a cross-correlation waveform comparison method. The transducer and its measurement method are particularly sensitive and accurate in determining small changes in wave velocity; therefore, they are applied to the measurement of acoustoelastic effects in PMMA materials. Both the surface skimming longitudinal wave and Rayleigh surface wave can be simultaneously excited and measured. With a uniaxial-loaded PMMA sample, both acoustoelastic effects for surface skimming longitudinal wave and Rayleigh waves of PMMA are measured. The acoustoelastic coefficients for both types of surface wave motions are simultaneously determined. The transducer and its measurement method provide a practical way for measuring surface stresses nondestructively.     

On dispersion relations of Rayleigh waves in a functionally graded piezoelectric material (FGPM) half-space

For propagation of Rayleigh surface waves in a transversely isotropic graded piezoelectric half-space with material properties varying continuously along depth direction, the Wentzel–Kramers–Brillouin (WKB) technique is employed for the asymptotic analytical derivations. The phase velocity equations for both the electrically open and shorted cases at the free surface are obtained. Influences of piezoelectric material parameters graded variations on Rayleigh wave dispersion relations, particles’ displacements magnitude and corresponding decay properties are discussed. Results obtained indicate that coupled Rayleigh waves can propagate at the surface of the graded piezoelectric half-space, and their dispersion relations and the particles displacements ellipticity at the free surface are dependent upon the graded variation tendency of the material parameters. By the Rayleigh surface waves phase velocities relative changing values combined with the relationship between the wave number and the material graded coefficient, a theoretical foundation can be provided for the graded material characterization by experimental measurement.     

Quantitative use of Rayleigh waves to locate and size subsurface holes

An ultrasonic inspection method is used to obtain the circumference of a subsurface hole and the depth of the hole below the surface. A pitch-catch Rayleigh wave transducer set-up was used to launch a Rayleigh surface wave at the flaw and to capture and record the scattered waves. The frequency spectrum of the scattered waves can be used to obtain the depth of the hole. The ligament of material between the hole and the surface is sent into resonance, and this feature can be extracted from the scattered waves' frequency spectrum. The frequency is a function of the ligament length; thus the hole depth can be obtained. The circumference of the hole is found from a time of flight measurement. A Rayleigh wave is formed that travels around the hole's surface. The length of time required for the wave to travel around the hole is a measure of the circumference.     

Measuring Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) Microscale Damage in Large-Scale Concrete Slabs Using Nonlinear Rayleigh Surface Waves

The second harmonic generation (SHG) of nonlinear Rayleigh waves is applied to characterize the damage state induced by alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in large-scale plain concrete slabs. A measurement setup that uses a wedge transmitter and a non-contact, air-coupled receiver is implemented to generate and detect nonlinear Rayleigh surface waves and to obtain both the linear and nonlinear acoustic parameters, while complementary measurements track expansion of the concrete slabs. These results demonstrate the potential of SHG using nonlinear Rayleigh waves to assess the evolution of microscale damage induced by ASR in large-scale, in-service concrete components.     

The effect of crack closure on the reliability of NDT predictions of crack size

The aim of this work is to investigate the effect of crack closure on the reliability of NDT predictions of crack size. Tests are performed on mild steel plate specimens each possessing a fatigue crack. The amount of crack opening or closure is controlled using a specially built four-point bending rig. Four NDT techniques are studied: dye penetrant testing, magnetic particle inspection, AC field measurement and an ultrasonic technique using Rayleigh waves. A success/failure criterion for the reliability of sizing is adopted and both the length and depth data are analysed in accordance with this condition. It is found that both magnetic particle inspection and AC field measurement can detect and measure closed cracks but that dye penetrant testing and the ultrasonic Rayleigh-wave technique cannot detect tightly closed cracks.     

Laser excitation through fiber optics for NDE

This paper describes experiments designed to generate acoustic waves by using a laser pulse, transmitted through fiber optics, to thermally shock the surface of a steel specimen. The purpose of this effort was to explore the noncontacting generation of Rayleigh surface waves appropriate to the interrogation of structures for the detection of subcritical defects, with the ultimate goal of developing an efficient laser-based nondestructive evaluation technique utilizing flexible fiber optics.     

基于声阵列的飞机地面声爆测试技术

开展超声速飞机飞行条件下的地面声爆测试是声爆问题研究的重要技术手段。针对大范围、高精度地面声爆的测试问题,提出了采用声阵列进行地面声爆测试的飞行试验技术方案,并开展了试验验证。根据声爆在真实大气中的传播特性,以声阵列为核心设计地面声爆测试方案和分布式测试系统,提出基于航迹切入程序进行飞行动作设计的方法,形成声爆-飞行状态-飞行航迹-地面至空中气象条件的综合方案。采用该飞行试验技术方案对某型歼击机的地面声爆进行了实测,结果表明该方案合理可行,能可靠地进行不同飞行条件下的地面大范围声爆测量及其相关参数测量,基于系综平均法设计的声阵列可提升稳定飞行状态的声爆测量精度,三种声爆测量传声器布置方案能够用于评估地面对声爆传播的影响。     

Application of metal single crystal wedges to high frequency rayleigh wave propagation

Techniques for propagating Rayleigh waves with frequencies varying from <1 to 270 MHz were developed for the purpose of nondestructive evaluation of composition or defect gradients near the surface of nonpiezoelectric solids. The surface waves with frequencies greater than 15 MHz were obtained from a novel technique using single crystal wedges, whereas the low frequency waves were produced by a previously used high voltage impulse. Measurements of Rayleigh wave velocities on single crystals of Ge and Al were performed as a test of accuracy and precision and are compared with calculated values.     

Characterization of Grain Size and Yield Strength in AISI 301 Stainless Steel Using Ultrasonic Attenuation Measurements

AISI 301 stainless steel samples were annealed over the temperature range of 800?C1200°C for 60?minutes to produce different grain sizes. These samples were characterized by ultrasonic immersion technique, tensile test, and optical microscopy. The attenuation of ultrasonic waves measured at a frequency of 20?MHz showed a good correlation with average grain size, hardness, and yield strength of AISI 301 stainless steel samples. A?new equation was derived for calculation of yield strength on the basis of ultrasonic wave attenuation and Hall-Petch relation.     

Surface waves in fibre-reinforced anisotropic elastic media

The aim of this paper is to investigate surface waves in anisotropic fibre-reinforced solid elastic media. First, the theory of general surface waves has been derived and applied to study the particular cases of surface waves — Rayleigh, Love and Stoneley types. The wave velocity equations are found to be in agreement with the corresponding classical result when the anisotropic elastic parameters tends to zero. It is important to note that the Rayleigh type of wave velocity in the fibre-reinforced elastic medium increases to a considerable amount in comparison with the Rayleigh wave velocity in isotropic materials.     

A Comparison of Q-Switched and Intensity Modulated Laser Pulses for Ultrasonic NDT

The purpose of this work was to investigate the potential of intensity modulated laser pulses for ultrasonic signal enhancement in NDT using a numerical model. Q-switched lasers produce broadband ultrasound which is susceptible to measurement noise. Intensity modulation can alleviate this problem by focussing the ultrasonic energy into a band centered around the modulation frequency. Ultrasonic waveforms and their DFTs are considered here in both aluminum and steel for a wide range of observation angles, for Q-switched laser pulses and for a 1 MHz intensity modulated laser pulse. These waveforms are useful to NDT researchers becauses they indicate what kinds of signals can be expected from unflawed materials. It is found that P waves are not as easily enhanced by modulation as are SV or Rayleigh surface waves. The time window which should be used to measure ultrasonic signals produced by intensity modulated laser pulses is determined.     

Messung von Rayleighwellen zur Untersuchung der Erosion an der Oberfläche kristalliner Werkstoffe mit Hilfe der Doppelpuls-Holographie

Measuring Rayleigh Waves to Investigate the Erosion at the Surface of Crystalline Materials by Means Double-Pulse Holographic Interferometry The repeated impact of solid particles on a material surface results in erosion. For technical applications as the pneumatic transport the particle diameters are varying between 10^?610^?3 m, the mean particle velocities are up to 30 m/s. In order to investigate experimentally the mechanism of erosion for crystalline materials, planar plates of austenitic steel are damaged due to the repeated impact of spherical particles. The elastic and plastic deformations, which are produced by this impact, result in propagation of longitudinal and transverse elastic waves into the material and of Rayleigh waves along the material surface. The amplitude of the surface deflection due to a single impacting particle is only 10^?810^?7 m. At different states of damage the surface deflection which is caused by such an impact is measured by means of double-pulse holographic interferometry. Because of the small amplitude of the Rayleigh waves two-reference-beam holographic interferometry is required. The initial wear of the material is recognized by the disturbed propagation of the surface wave.     

THE EMISSION OF RAYLEIGH WAVES FROM BRITTLE FRACTURE INITIATION, AND THE POSSIBLE EFFECT OF THE REFLECTED WAVES ON CRACK ARREST

Abstract— The pop-in initiation and arrest behaviour in weldments of a structural steel, have been characterized with acoustic emission measurements. It was found that strong Rayleigh waves radiate from the crack tip in a preferred direction. Literature examinations and reanalysis of previous crack arrest test results, clearly indicate that the Rayleigh waves will be reflected back from edges on the crack surface and cause a crack closure effect upon arrival at the running crack tip. The phenomenon is tentatively called AUTOARREST (automatic arrest caused by release of stress waves from the crack itself).     

利用非线性表面波评价材料疲劳损伤

采用非线性Rayleigh表面波检测方法,实现了不同疲劳阶段下钢试样拉伸和腐蚀疲劳损伤的测试与评价;基于楔块\换能器激发与接收声波方式,搭建非线性Rayleigh波检测系统,测量了不同激励水平下基波幅值平方与二次谐波幅值间的线性关系以及Rayleigh表面波二次谐波的累积效应;分别在拉伸载荷和腐蚀疲劳载荷下,采集非线性时域信号并进行频谱分析,测量声学非线性系数在不同疲劳阶段下变化趋势,并分析不同疲劳载荷对钢试样声学非线性系数的影响。实验结果表明:超声非线性系数与疲劳周期数呈单调递增关系,可以用声学非线性系数来表征材料的表面疲劳损伤程度;相比较周期性拉伸疲劳损伤,腐蚀疲劳试样的声学非线性系数会增大,是由于腐蚀环境会加重实验中钢试样的疲劳损伤程度。研究成果可为疲劳损伤无损检测与评价提供一定的指导意义。     

Electrochemical methods for studying hydrogen diffusivity,permeability, and solubility in AISI 420 and AISI 430 stainless steels

Abstract

Hydrogen permeation and diffusivity were studied electrochemically at temperatures between 283 and 343 K at constant current for annealed and hardened AISI 420 and annealed AISI 430 stainless steel. Permeation rate, effective diffusivity, and solubility were calculated from these data. Annealed AISI 420 shows higher permeation rate and lower diffusivity than annealed AISI 430 stainless steel. Hardened AISI 420 has the highest permeation rate and lowest effective diffusivity. The calculation of solubility values from permeation data is in good agreement with the values obtained using a newly developed electrochemical hydrogen solubility measurement technique.

MST/1026     

Evaluation of the State of Subsurface Layers of the Metal Subjected to Shot Peening with the Help of Surface Acoustic Waves

Materials Science - We study the surface layers of the metal of low-carbon steel after shot peening. The velocity of surface Rayleigh waves is determined by the pulse-phase method at frequencies of...     

Wear of Tailored Forming Steels

This study investigates the wear behavior of additively welded cladding layers on less wear-resistant base materials using plasma-transferred arc welding and laser hot-wire cladding. The cladding layers are made from atomized AISI 52100, AISI 5140, and a stainless steel with (0.52 wt% C, 0.9 wt% Si, 14 wt% Cr, 0.4 wt% Mo, 1.8 wt% Ni, 1.2 wt% V, bal. Fe) on unalloyed steel AISI 1022M as the base material. The specimens' microstructure and surface hardness are comparable with conventional specimens of monolithic AISI 52100 and AISI 4140, which is used as a reference. Tribometer tests are carried out in ball-on-disk configuration to investigate the wear resistance of the specimen. The multimaterial specimens show comparable wear behavior to their monolithic counterparts, and a good performance of the stainless specimen in pure sliding is proven. These findings suggest that additive manufacturing processes can be used to clad less wear-resistant base materials and achieve high wear resistance, making it possible to exploit the advantages of surface coatings under severe wear conditions.     

A Study on Formation and Growth Mechanism of Nitride Layers During Plasma Nitriding Process of Plastic Injection Mold Steel

Ion nitriding modifies composition of surface layer in steel used in plastic mold application and this consequently improves their lifecycle. In this study, pulsed plasma nitriding technique was used to produce a protecting hard layer on AISI P20 steel at three process temperatures of 450°C, 500°C, and 550°C for durations of 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 h at a constant gas mixture of 75% N₂–25% H₂. Surface morphology was studied by optical and scanning electron microscope and the phases formed on the surface layer were determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Elemental depth profile was measured by techniques including energy dispersive spectroscopy, wavelength dispersive spectrometer, and glow discharge spectroscopy and for identifying hardness profile, microhardness variations from surface to core of samples were recorded. Results showed that, thickness of compound layer of plastic mold steel AISI P20 was negligible. Moreover in ion nitriding of AISI P20, nitride were formed and grown in some preferred directions and upward diffusion of carbon and downward diffusion of nitrogen occurred during ion nitriding of AISI P20. XRD results showed that, ?-nitride is the dominant phase after plasma nitriding in all strategies. Furthermore, ion nitriding improved hardness of AISI P20 up to three times and as time and temperature increased, hardness and hardness depth of diffusion zone increased considerably.