Effect of microporosity on the tensile properties of AZ91 magnesium alloy

The effect of microporosity on the tensile deformation of as-cast AZ91 magnesium alloy was investigated through systematic experimental approaches and theoretical predictions of a constitutive model for tension instability. The strain rate sensitivity was measured at room temperature by the incremental strain rate change test, and the microporosity was quantitatively obtained by fractography analysis on fractured surfaces. The tensile strength and elongation of as-cast AZ91 alloy have a strong inverse parabolic dependence on microporosity variation. The constitutive model can exactly predict the tensile deformation of AZ91 alloy through a practical estimation of strain-related terms and load carrying capacity by quantitative fractography. The overall plastic deformation of AZ91 alloy depends fundamentally upon not only the variation of load carrying capacity, but also on the strain hardening exponent and strain rate sensitivity. The contribution of strain rate sensitivity to plastic deformation becomes increasingly significant with a decreased strain hardening ability. As the strain rate sensitivity of the conventional material is very low but not zero, the constitutive model for the exact prediction of plastic deformation should take the strain rate sensitivity term into account.     

Microstructure and Strain Hardening of a Friction Stir Welded High-Strength Al–Zn–Mg Alloy

Microstructural evolution and strain hardening behavior of a friction stir welded（FSWed） high-strength7075Al-T651 alloy were evaluated.The nugget zone was observed to consist of fine and equiaxed recrystallized grains with a low dislocation density and free of original precipitates,but containing uniformly distributed dispersoids.The strength,joint efficiency,and ductility of the FSWed joints increased with increasing welding speed.A joint efficiency of ＊91% was achieved at a welding speed of 400 mm/min and rotational rate of 800 r/min,while the ductility remained basically the same as that of the base metal.There was no obvious strain rate sensitivity observed in both base metal and welded joints.While both the base metal and FSWed joints exhibited stage III and IV hardening characteristics,the hardening capacity,strain hardening exponent,and strain hardening rate all increased after friction stir welding.     

Three strategies to achieve uniform tensile deformation in a nanostructured metal

In nanostructured metals with grain sizes of the order of 100 nm, dislocation mechanisms remain dominant in controlling plastic deformation. These materials, similar to their coarse-grained counterparts that have been subjected to heavy cold work, can no longer go through the several strain hardening stages of normal metals and are hence susceptible to plastic instabilities such as necking in tension. For processing and applications, it is obviously important and often necessary to control such inhomogeneous plastic deformation. Here we demonstrate three strategies to achieve relatively large stable tensile deformation in nanostructured metals, using the pure Cu processed by equal channel angular pressing as a model. The first approach uses an in situ formed composite-like microstructure, such as a bimodal grain size distribution, to impart strain hardening to the material and attain large uniform tensile strains while maintaining the majority of the strengthening brought forth by nanostructuring. In the second route, deformation is conducted at low temperatures, such as 77 K. The material regains the ability to work harden due to suppressed dynamic recovery. Uniform elongation is achieved as a result, together with an elevated strength at the cryogenic temperature. The third method takes advantage of the elevated strain rate sensitivity of the flow stress of the nanostructured Cu, especially at slow strain rates. Using the stabilizing effects of strain rate hardening on tensile deformation, nearly uniform strains can be acquired in absence of strain hardening. We also discuss the deformation mechanisms involved in these approaches to assess their applicability to nanocrystalline metals with grain sizes well below 100 nm, where normal dislocation activities become severely suppressed.     

Analytical and experimental investigations on deformation mechanism and fracture behavior in single point incremental forming

Incremental sheet forming (ISF) is a highly versatile and flexible process for rapid manufacturing of complex sheet metal parts. The characteristic of localized deformation is significantly different from conventional sheet metal forming process. To understand the fundamental material deformation mechanism during the ISF process is of great importance for ISF process design and optimization in achieving improved material formability, accuracy and more uniform thickness distribution. In this paper, an analytical model for single point incremental forming (SPIF) process has been developed to describe the localized deformation mechanism. With the consideration of both bending effect and strain hardening, the stress and strain states in the deformation zone are described. Analytical evaluation reveals that the deformation occurs not only in the contact zone, but also in the neighboring wall which has been already formed in the vicinity of the contact zone. In addition, the results also suggest that the fracture tends to appear at the transitional zone between the contact area and the formed wall. In order to validate the analytical results, SPIF simulation and experiments both have been conducted with good agreement obtained.     

Research of Metal Flow Behavior during Extrusion with Active Friction

Using numerical simulation and experiment, the metal flow behavior mechanical mechanisms in the extrusion process with active friction were investigated. The characteristic variables, second invariant of the stress deviator J ₂ and the Lode’s coefficient μ were employed to partition the deformation region. It is shown that no metal flow interface occurred at the container bottom in the extrusion with active friction and the dead zone disappeared completely. The strain types of the material in the plastic deformation area decreased from three types into a single type of tension, and the homogeneity of metal deformation as well as metal flow was greatly improved. It was also indicted that the active friction was beneficial to the extrusion process and the promotion of product quality. After contrasting the result of experiment and the simulation, the displacement and the load were well correlated on both values and trends.     

Thermo-mechanical modeling of orthogonal machining process by finite element analysis

A plane strain finite element method is used with a new material constitutive equation for 1020 steel to simulate orthogonal machining with continuous chip formation. Deformation of the workpiece material is treated as elastic–viscoplastic with isotropic strain hardening, and the numerical solution accounts for coupling between plastic deformation and the temperature field, including treatment of temperature-dependent material properties. To avoid numerical errors associated with large deformation of elements, automatic remeshing is used, with at least 15 rezonings required to achieve a satisfactory solution. Effects of the uncertainty in the constitutive model on the distributions of strain, stress and temperature around the shear zone are presented, and the model is validated by comparing average values of the predicted stress, strain, strain rate and temperature at the shear zone with experimental results. Parametric effects associated with cutting speed and initial work temperature are considered in the simulations.     

A mathematical theory of plasticity for compressible powder metallurgy materials — Part III

A new mathematical equation taking into account of all new and relevant parameters to represent the flow behaviour of partially dense P/M materials during the case of simple upsetting-compression test is proposed in this paper. The ratio of the yield stress of the P/M-porous material to the yield stress of 100% dense material is found to be increasing with increase in deformation strain. Further, a theory for simple plastic instability and work hardening rate of porous P/M-material has been developed with strain hardening index and strain rate sensitivity parameters.     

拉伸条件对Al—Li—Cu—Mg—Zr合金超塑变形行为的影响

研究了拉伸条件对温轧态Al-Li-Cu-Mg-Zr合金超塑变形行为的影响.结果表明:该合金在变形初期发生了界面取向差逐渐增大,从亚晶组织向再结晶组织变化的形变促使连续再结晶过程;应变速率越高,再结晶速度越快,再结晶晶粒越细;经高应变速率的第一阶段拉伸变形后,形成的细晶组织具有高的应变速率敏感性,同时在低应变速率的第二阶段拉伸变形中发生晶粒长大而具有高的应变硬化效果,两者的综合作用是两段速率拉伸获得高延伸率的根本原因。     

短纤维增强金属基复合材料拉伸应力场的有限元数值分析

运用空间轴对称弹塑性有限元方法,研究了短纤维增强金属基复合材料拉伸应力场分布。研究表明,基体和纤维的应力分布及基体塑性行为具有明显的不均匀性,材料参数（纤维长径比,纤维体积分数,纤维根间距和基体应变硬化指数）以不同方式通过影响应力传递基体约束变形和基体应变硬化进而影响应力场分布。     

准静态加载下时效态Inconel 718薄板的各向异性屈服准则及硬化模型构建

当金属件的特征尺寸缩小到微尺度时,会产生尺寸效应,从而使对微成形的理解变得复杂。本文以0.1mm厚的时效态Inconel 718薄板为研究对象,对其进行了力学性能测试。基于力学测试数据,探究了时效态Inconel 718薄板在相同应变速率、不同拉伸方向上各向异性、延伸率、屈服强度及最大抗拉强度的变化规律,并建立了介微观尺度下各向异性及屈服强度的预测模型和考虑应变量及应变速率的准静态硬化模型。结果表明：时效态Inconel 718薄板具有明显的各向异性,其延伸率以45°为极值点呈现先增大后减小的变化规律,屈服强度和最大抗拉强度的变化规律与之相反。由于尺寸效应的存在需要两组不同的材料参数对各向异性及屈服强度进行预测。当应变速率大于0.1 s_^-1时,材料屈服强度表现出明显的应变速率敏感性,该硬化模型不再适用。     

EFFECT OF TENSION CONDITIONS ON SUPERPLASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF AN Al-Li-Cu-Mg-Zr ALLOY

A much higher elongation of a warm rolled superplastic Al-Li-Cu-Mg-Zr alloy was madeunder two-stage strain rate tests comparing with the single ones.During initial stage ofdeformation a deformation-induced continuous recrystallization which converted a subgrainstructure into a recrystallized grain structure by a continuous increase in boundarymisorientations had occurred.The higher the strain rate,the faster the continuousrecrystallization and the finer the recrystallized grains.The fine recrystallized grain structureformed during the first stage deformation is the essential condition for the material to havehigh strain rate hardening and strain hardening during the low second stage superplasticdeformation.The combination of strain rate hardening and strain hardening is the reason whythe higher elongation may be obtained during two-stage superplastic deformation of the alloy.     

Strain hardening model of pure titanium considering effects of deformation twinning

This paper is concerned with the effect of deformation twinning on the strain hardening behavior of commercially pure titanium during the compressive loading. In accordance with many studies on titanium, the strain hardening behavior of titanium during compression has different characteristics from those of general metallic materials. It has been reported that the strain hardening rate of titanium during compression can be divided into three stages. In the first stage, the strain hardening rate decreases as the strain increases due to dynamic recovery. Following the first stage, however, a sudden increase in the strain hardening rate is observed in the second stage. It is well known that the occurrence of the second stage is due to the generation of deformation twinning. After the second stage, the strain hardening rate decreases again as the strain increases in the third stage. In this paper, a strain hardening model that can represent the three stages of strain hardening is proposed based on the investigated effect of deformation twinning on the strain hardening behavior of titanium. The electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) analyses are conducted to quantify the twin volume fraction with increase of compressive plastic strain, which provide fundamental frame of the hardening model for titanium.     

Cr15Mn9Cu2Ni1N不锈钢连铸坯的高温拉伸变形特性

对于Cr15Mn9Cu2Ni1N不锈钢连铸坯,热变形过程中变形局部化的发生会影响其表面质量。从连铸坯的表层及芯部制取小型试样,利用热/力模拟试验机,进行温度950℃～1150℃范围内的拉伸试验。结果发现,随变形温度升高,该钢强度降低而延伸率提高;试样在发生颈缩,即变形局部化之前,要经历均匀变形和扩散颈缩变形,两种变形均使试样变形区获得均匀的宏观变形形貌;而高温拉伸的延伸率主要由扩散颈缩阶段的变形量决定。分析表明,均匀变形阶段主要靠应变强化抑制变形局部化的发生,而扩散颈缩变形阶段应变速率强化起主导作用。随变形温度升高,尤其在温度高于1100℃时,该钢的应变速率强化效应增强,可推迟最终变形局部化的发生,从而获得较大的延伸率。     

铸态ER8车轮钢的热变形行为及本构模型研究

采用Gleeble-1500D热模拟试验机,在变形温度为900～1250℃、应变速率为0.001～1 s-1的条件下对铸态ER8车轮钢进行热压缩试验,得到真应力-真应变曲线.结果发现:其真应力-真应变曲线符合动态再结晶型软化机制,变形初始阶段,材料发生硬化,真应力快速增加,随着变形的继续,材料发生动态回复,加工硬化速率...     

On the modelling of strain ageing in a metastable austenitic stainless steel

The plastic hardening of metastable austenitic stainless steel is partly governed by martensitic transformation, the occurrence of serrated plastic flow, and plastic strain ageing phenomena. In this paper an elasto-viscoplastic material model with isotropic distortional plastic hardening is developed. The model accounts for static and dynamic strain ageing as well as the martensitic transformation. An experimental programme has been conducted in order to fit the model parameters to an austenitic stainless steel within the EN 1.4310 standard. The identification of the dynamic strain ageing was based on so called jump tests, where a sudden strain rate increase was shown to result in an instantaneous positive strain rate sensitivity followed by negative steady state strain rate sensitivity. Furthermore, the static strain ageing was identified by unloading tensile test specimens at specified plastic strains and then reloading these specimens after different periods of time. The observed material behaviour in the test situations can be predicted by the developed model. Lastly, the model was validated by predicting the force-displacement relation of the material in a shear test; the prediction agrees well with experimental results.     

大型饼类锻件变形规律及夹杂性裂纹产生过程研究（续）

大型饼类锻件变形规律及夹杂性裂纹产生过程研究（续）（清华大学１０００８４）马庆贤，曹起骧，谢冰（第一重型机械集团公司１６１０４２）谢云岫，宋士丹，吴书勤４夹杂性裂纹产生过程的模拟研究４．１实验条件大型钢锭的解剖实验表明：低熔点非金属夹杂物（如硫化物、...     

Microstructure and deformation behaviour of laser welded dissimilar dual phase steel joints

The microstructure, microhardness, tensile properties, deformation and fracture behaviour of the Nd:YAG laser welded dissimilar joints between 780 and 980?MPa dual phase steels over a wide strain rate range were investigated. The welded joint shows hardening in fusion zone, supercritical and intercritical heat affected zones and softening in subcritical heat affected zones. For the dissimilar welded joint, the changing trend of the ductility is similar to those of the base metals with respect to the strain rate. The reason for the strain rate sensitivity of the failure location of the welded joint is that the major factor influencing the failure location changes from the content of ferrite to the content of ferrite/martensite interface with increasing strain rate.     

纳米孪晶铜尺度效应的数值模拟

为了理解电解沉积纳米孪晶铜的拉伸变形行为,采用基于机制的应变梯度塑性理论对其拉伸变形进行数值模拟研究;提出孪晶薄层强化带的概念,并采用黏聚力界面模型模拟晶界的滑移和分离现象。采用的计算模型包含晶粒尺寸、弹性模量、塑性硬化指数、初始屈服应力和孪晶薄层分布等和尺度效应相关的一系列参数。计算结果有助于理解纳米孪晶铜的力学行为。     

Strain-induced martensitic transformation in stainless steels: A three-dimensional phase-field study

A three-dimensional elastoplastic phase-field model is developed to study the microstructure evolution during strain-induced martensitic transformation in stainless steels under different stress states. The model also incorporates linear isotropic strain hardening. The input simulation data is acquired from different sources, such as CALPHAD, ab initio calculations and experimental measurements. The results indicate that certain stress states, namely uniaxial tensile, biaxial compressive and shear strain loadings, lead to single variant formation in the entire grain, whereas others, such as uniaxial compressive, biaxial tensile and triaxial strain loadings, lead to multivariant microstructure formation. The effects of stress states, strain rate as well as temperature on the mechanical behavior of steels are also studied. The material exhibits different yield stresses and hardening behavior under different stress states. The equivalent stress is higher at low strain rate, whereas a higher elongation is obtained at high strain rate. The deformation temperature mainly affects the hardening behavior of the material as well as the transformation, i.e. martensite volume fraction decreases with increasing temperature. Some of the typical characteristics of strain-induced martensite, such as the formation of thin elongated martensite laths, shear band formation and nucleation of martensite in highly plasticized areas, as well as at shear band intersections, are also observed.     

Constraining effects of weld and heat-affected zone on deformation behaviors of welded tubes in numerical control bending process

The constraining effects of the weld and heat-affected zone (HAZ) material in welded tube numerical control (NC) bending process are key problem to be solved in the research, development and application of thin-walled welded tubes. To investigate the constraining effects of the weld and HAZ material on the tube bend formability, finite element (FE) model with weld and subdivided HAZs, model with weld-only and model with parent metal alone under ABAQUS platform are employed. The results show that: (1) the weld and HAZ material have obvious constraining effects on the strain distributions in weld and HAZ as the weld line locates on the outside and inside of the bend, meanwhile, the cross-sectional deformation becomes more severe as the weld line locates on the outside; (2) as the weld line locates on the outside, the constraining effects of the weld and HAZ material make the tangent strain and thickness strain decrease, the hoop strain increase in the weld and HAZ, the cross-sectional deformation increase and the wall thinning decrease as compared with model that contains parent metal alone; (3) the constraining effects of the weld and HAZ material are minimal as the weld line locates on the middle of the bend.