The challenge of restoring Europe's nature and landscapes

In many parts of Europe, there is a growing emphasis on restoring nature and landscapes as well as protecting them. This is partly a response to the serious loss of biodiversity, and the erosion of habitats and landscapes, in Europe; but it is also because surplus agricultural capacity and other factors create opportunities for restoration. Several important programmes encourage restoration at the pan‐European and European Union scales; many countries are engaged in national restoration initiatives; and locally, throughout Europe, there is interest in restoring nature. The questions which arise in connection with this approach are analysed and 10 principles put forward to guide restoration strategies in Europe.     

The cultural landscape

There has been a recent shift by environmental agencies towards recognising the positive contribution made by humankind to the creation of valued landscapes. This discussion outlines the growing appreciation of cultural landscapes in various European countries. Particular attention is given to protected areas and the role of local communities in Britain. Landscape is concerned with more than mere marks on the ground, but also with the associations that people attach to their localities.     

The cultural landscape

There has been a recent shift by environmental agencies towards recognising the positive contribution made by humankind to the creation of valued landscapes. This discussion outlines the growing appreciation of cultural landscapes in various European countries. Particular attention is given to protected areas and the role of local communities in Britain. Landscape is concerned with more than mere marks on the ground, but also with the associations that people attach to their localities.     

英国国家公园与法国区域公园的保护与管理

乡村文化景观保护区是人类与自然在长期合作下共同创造出来的具有突出美学、生态和文化价值的乡村地区.英国国家公园将公园内的乡村景观视为国家利益,投入必要的管理资金和管理资源,采取自然保护、适宜的农场管理方式、严格的建设控制等举措,通过强制或经济补偿的方法保护乡村的文化景观.法国区域公园则指出了一条通过社会经济发展促进景观保护的道路.     

The perception and conservation of nature in the Third Reich

This article asks whether nature conservation was modernized in the Third Reich-whether the clear deficiencies left by the Weimar Republic were remedied and whether the National Socialist regime took up the task of making nature conservation areas more accessible to the general public, an aim which was important in terms of international comparisons. It comes to the conclusion that the idea of promoting a quasi-democratic, even tourist access to nature played no role at all in determining these policies. However, the decree of the 1935 Reich Nature Conservation Law which handed over the responsibility for nature conservation from the Lander governments to the Reich and gave it a right of participation and veto in altering landscapes was definitely a modernization, unmatched (to a certain extent) even by the policies of the early Federal Republic. However, because the motives for this and other measures were primarily grounded in power politics and only served nature conservation secondarily, the improved accountability for nature conservation was, for the most part, paper work and was scarcely able to influence the way in which nature was treated by both industry and agriculture.     

Why landscapes of the past are important for the future

Landscapes change because they are the expression of the dynamic interaction between natural and cultural forces in the environment. Cultural landscapes are the result of consecutive reorganization of the land in order to adapt its use and spatial structure better to the changing societal demands. Particularly in Europe, history has recorded many successive and even devastating landscape changes, which have left barely any relics today. Today, the changes are seen as a menace, as a negative evolution because they cause a loss of diversity, coherence and identity, which were characteristic for the traditional cultural landscapes that are rapidly vanishing. This growing concern is also expressed in the European Landscape Convention, which will be used as a start for the analysis in this article. Three periods of landscape dynamics are considered: the traditional landscapes before the important changes that started in the 18th century, the landscapes of the revolutions age of the 19th to 20th century, and the post-modern new landscapes. The combined effect of the driving forces such as accessibility, urbanization, globalization and the impact of calamities have been different in each of the periods and affected the nature and pace of the changes as well as the perception people have had about the landscape. Values change accordingly and so does the way of using and shaping the landscape. It is argued that this changing perception also influences what kind and aspects of landscapes are studied, protected and managed. Diversity and identity of cultural landscapes are central in the discussion. It is shown that coherence between small composing elements in a broader spatial context is important for the legibility of the landscape and that the ability to tell the (his)story of a place strongly enhances the identity and the overall value. This offers criteria for inventorying and assessing landscapes, which is needed to define future management and development. Although the general trends of future development of the European landscapes are rather well known, planning and managing future landscape remains difficult and extremely uncertain. The processes and management in past traditional landscapes and the manifold relations people have towards the perceivable environment and the symbolic meaning it generates, offer valuable knowledge for more sustainable planning and management for future landscapes.     

From aspiration to implementation — the establishment of the first national nature reserves in Britain

Much has been written on the initiatives leading up to the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949, but relatively little on the ways in which the National Parks Commission and Nature Conservancy subsequently established themselves amongst other user-interests in the countryside. This paper disputes the general assumption that the Nature Conservancy operated in a largely apolitical climate, acquiring and managing nature reserves on essentially scientific criteria. Particular attention is given to the assumptions on which the statutory powers of the Nature Conservancy were granted, the changing political context within which the Nature Conservancy acquired its network of nature reserves, and the changing understanding of the management needs of nature reserves. Consideration is also given to the attempts made to give tangible effect to the concept of enhancement and enrichment in the distinctive landscapes of nature reserves. Insights from archival evidence help to explain the urgency with which 'conservation research' came to be promoted by the early 1960s, and place in clearer perspective the more overtly political influences exerted on nature conservation in later decades.     

Historic cultural landscapes and emerging heritage values: and Australian perspective

The theme of the paper is the emergence in Australia of the recognition that rural cultural landscapes are important historical documents and form a significant part of Australia's cultural heritage. Attention is drawn to the special niche occupied by the pastoral landscapes of southeastern Australia through the historical construction of an Australian landscape identity in art and literature. An overview is given of the need to conserve exemplars of Australian rural cultural landscapes and of initiatives by government agencies and community groups such as the National Trust of Australia in cultural landscape conservation within a framework provided by Australian ICOMOS Guidelines to the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance (Burra Charter).     

The Heritage of the Productive Landscape: Landscape Design for Rural Areas in the Netherlands, 1954-1985

In the current debate about the future of the Dutch countryside, more and more attention is drawn to the role of landscape heritage. Spatial designers are asked to translate historic identities into spatial forms in order to bridge the gap between past and future. Special cultural heritage policies are developed to stimulate a shift in design practice and to increase awareness of the value of cultural landscapes. Because interpretation of the rural landscape is often rooted in nostalgia, most conservation efforts are directed at old historical landscapes and rural scenes. But what about modern rural landscapes? How do these landscapes relate to the emerging issue of heritage protection and development? To answer this question the historical significance of these landscapes was examined by analyzing their design in the slipstream of post-war reconstruction. Attention was also given to their possible future in a planning and management context that is increasingly influenced by a public and professional demand for landscape conservation and heritage. We argue that these landscapes are at odds with the values and core convictions of the current heritage policies and merit recognition in their own right.     

Conservation in a Privatized Water Industry: The Anglian Water Experience

Anglian Water has adopted a positive approach to conservation. This forms an integral part of the Company's environmental policy which includes a commitment to full compliance with the Code of Practice on Conservation, Access and Recreation and acknowledges the Company's statutory responsibilities towards conservation.
The Company is actively incorporating conservation considerations into routine environmental assessment of a growing capital programme. The implementation of nature conservation and landscaping initiatives is making an important contribution to the wildlife and visual amenity of the Company's sites. Management plans and nature reserve agreements have been prepared for operational sites including the 10% of the Company's land which has been designated by English Nature as of Site of Special Scientific Interest status. Buildings and objects of cultural heritage interest are being restored and displayed, and the Company supports archaeological investigations around the Anglian region.
Anglian is promoting awareness of conservation issues, and of its work, through support for environmental projects within the community. Regular dialogue with conservation organizations forms an important component of the Company's conservation work.     

以自然为取向的旅游设施作为促进生物多样性保护的策略手段 以欧洲西南部萨尔加多湿地为例

人类的福祉有赖于自然生态系统所提供的大量的生态系统服务。为此欧盟已经建立了一个名为＂自然2000＂的大型生态保护区网络;然而,在经历了一段时期的城市扩张和土地使用的集约化后,欧洲的生物多样性已经迅速减少,大多数物种和栖息地的利益仍未处于一个良好的保护状态。在过去的几十年里,可持续旅游概念的提出和以自然为取向的自然型旅游业的出现,作为一项重要的生态系统服务,为保护自然环境和发展当地经济提供了大量的支持。并且这些支持的大部分已经集中投入在了保护区域,但是要看到,在这里我们是假设以自然为取向的旅游业对于尚未被正式保护的荒野环境而言,是一项具有高潜力的保护策略和可持续发展的基础。尤其是在具有多种且相互竞争用途的景观中,它能在自然修复、生物多样性保护和人类活动之间取得一种保证。为了验证这一假设,以位于阿尔加维地区（欧洲西南部）一处与沼泽地带相连的湿地作为研究案例。该案例研究涉及一处重要的但还未处于任何正式保护状态的滨海野生环境,并且20世纪末,在此环境中,几项限制条件促进了创造性的管理模式。描述了在21世纪初,设计并执行一项以自然为取向的旅游设施的过程。这一研究成果以景观生态学的概念框架以及一处涉及修复和保护的环境为支撑。同时文章还探讨了这种基于自然的旅游设施在促进可持续管理和自然保护策略方面的潜在意义。     

Social, aesthetic and ecological aspects of hedgerows in rural landscapes as a framework for greenways

Hedgerow network landscapes may be considered as greenways, as they provide agronomic, ecological, aesthetic and cultural benefits. They are among the most threatened agricultural landscapes of western Europe. Intensification of agriculture with the conversion of permanent grassland into ploughed land and the use of new machinery leads to the enlargement of fields and the removal of hedgerows surrounding them. There is a growing concern among conservationists, rural managers and the public to maintain these greenways as a framework for landscape sustainability.In France, hedgerow removal may be planned within reallotment programmes that take into account all the land of a municipality. In this planning process, criteria for keeping or clearing woody elements are based on agronomic properties of soil, environmental quality of elements and of the network, and property boundaries. Aesthetic aspects are rarely assessed. As rural landscapes are shifting from an almost unique function of agricultural production toward a multifunction of nature conservation, environmental protection, amenity and production, the conservation of hedgerow networks becomes of greater importance. The goal is now the protection of these greenways to provide not only ecological but also recreational and cultural benefits. In a case study in Brittany, we tried to link these different aspects. Our work is based on interviews and a landscape ecological survey. We found contrasting opinions between farmers and non-farmers concerning the density of the network. Nevertheless, the two groups agree on the necessity to keep greenways as part of their cultural landscape. Most of the people were not aware of the ecological role of hedgerow networks, and perceive them only by their visual properties. We proposed various scenarios based on ecological and aesthetic principles, and defined general guidelines for the design of new landscapes during reallotment programmes. The integration of different points of view by landscape planners is the only way to link visual values to productive or ecological processes, and must be effective in the case of the management of greenways such as hedgerows.     

Using GIS to analyse long-term cultural landscape change in Southern Germany

Two case studies of cultural landscapes in Southern Germany were conducted to develop appropriate techniques for quantifying and analysing the landscape change since 1850. Methods were derived from geographical landscape change analysis, based on cadastral maps and land registers, and were rendered at a land plot level by the use of GIS. The database for the diachronic GIS, especially cadastral maps and land plot records, are discussed in detail. This study emphasizes that an approach based on a land plot level and using a land record-based GIS provides valuable results relevant for planning processes and nature conservation in changing cultural landscapes.     

On the nature of virtuous change in cultural landscapes: Exploring sustainability through qualitative models

Cultural landscapes are internationally valued resources, yet face endemic threats. Often the ‘drivers for change’ result in a loss of valued qualities, and are associated with ‘vicious circles’ of landscape deterioration. The way in which landscape may represent an integrative framework for research and policy is noted. It is argued that a key objective of research and policy should be to promote ‘virtuous circles’ in which social capital and economic entrepreneurship valorize distinctive landscape characteristics, leading to a situation of mutual reinforcement between human activity and environmental capital. Particular attention is given to qualitative models of virtuosity in the landscape. Positive feedback loops in the landscape are illustrated by reference to current examples of integrated rural projects. The further development of formal models as a basis for reinstating virtuous circles is advocated as a basis for the future planning and understanding of cultural landscapes.     

On the nature of virtuous change in cultural landscapes: Exploring sustainability through qualitative models

Cultural landscapes are internationally valued resources, yet face endemic threats. Often the 'drivers for change' result in a loss of valued qualities, and are associated with 'vicious circles' of landscape deterioration. The way in which landscape may represent an integrative framework for research and policy is noted. It is argued that a key objective of research and policy should be to promote 'virtuous circles' in which social capital and economic entrepreneurship valorize distinctive landscape characteristics, leading to a situation of mutual reinforcement between human activity and environmental capital. Particular attention is given to qualitative models of virtuosity in the landscape. Positive feedback loops in the landscape are illustrated by reference to current examples of integrated rural projects. The further development of formal models as a basis for reinstating virtuous circles is advocated as a basis for the future planning and understanding of cultural landscapes.     

东西方自然保护地文化特征比较研究

东西方因思维方式所导致的自然保护地文化特征存在很大差异,中国自然保护地体系建设不能完全模仿西方经验。首先分析东西方思维方式的差异和当前中国建立自然保护地体系的政策背景,并明确东西方自然保护地建设存在诸多差异这一事实,确认了东西方自然保护地文化特征比较研究的必要性。随后,从环境观差异和保护地文化内涵差异两方面切入,对东西方自然保护地文化特征进行了比较研究。研究认为东方环境观倾向于认为物质蕴含精神、文化与自然相互交融、渗透,而西方则持二元论观点;且东方国家有许多具有国家文化象征意义的自然环境被指定为自然保护地,这与西方国家追求荒野或蕴含的地方文化特征不同。最后,结合东北亚其他国家(日本、韩国和朝鲜)自然保护地文化特征保护的实践经验,基于文化差异视角,从三方面对中国特色自然保护地体系建设提出建议。     

Geolandscapes and Geotourism: Integrating Nature and Culture in the Bucegi Mountains of Romania

Originally considered “exclusively geomorphological”, geolandscapes are multilayered landscapes defined by remarkable sights of natural diversity and different levels of human use. The paper approaches geolandscapes and geotourism from a geographical perspective and advances a unifying view of geodiversity, biodiversity and cultural values as major components of geolandscapes. Within this context it addresses the compelling issue of endangered protected areas, especially since mass tourism practices and lack of proper policies are involved. The Bucegi Mountains in Romania’s Southern Carpathians are rich in geodiversity and biodiversity. They comprise a Sacred Natural Site as a last reminder of ancient beliefs and a war memorial as an iconic landmark and a place of remembrance. Inconsistencies between international standards for conservation and local management practices are obvious. As an overcrowded destination, the Bucegi Mountains face biodiversity loss and constant degradation, with sacredness and symbolic significance being on the brink of perishing. It is the first time a comparative analysis is carried out with the purpose of revealing the full extent of the educational potential and endangered status of geolandscapes, understood as both natural and cultural landscapes. Geotourism, which hasn’t been introduced so far in the Bucegi Mountains area, is advocated as an educational tool for geolandscape management.     

滨水度假区规划设计策略浅议——以奉化阳光海湾度假区城市设计为例

自然生态要素是发展旅游度假的起源和根基,只有保护好自然生态才能保住地区的核心价值;社会价值是度假区生存的软环境,充分体现以人为本、服务社会、回馈社会的原则;度假区产业策划是其发展动力,体现开发与保护的融合与共赢;景观标志是度假区原生态景观以及在自然引导下的人工景观创造,是人与自然的合成品牌,是提升景观吸引力的硬环境和视觉"大餐"。     

From aspiration to implementation — the establishment of the first national nature reserves in Britain

Much has been written on the initiatives leading up to the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949, but relatively little on the ways in which the National Parks Commission and Nature Conservancy subsequently established themselves amongst other user‐interests in the countryside. This paper disputes the general assumption that the Nature Conservancy operated in a largely apolitical climate, acquiring and managing nature reserves on essentially scientific criteria. Particular attention is given to the assumptions on which the statutory powers of the Nature Conservancy were granted, the changing political context within which the Nature Conservancy acquired its network of nature reserves, and the changing understanding of the management needs of nature reserves. Consideration is also given to the attempts made to give tangible effect to the concept of enhancement and enrichment in the distinctive landscapes of nature reserves. Insights from archival evidence help to explain the urgency with which ‘conservation research’ came to be promoted by the early 1960s, and place in clearer perspective the more overtly political influences exerted on nature conservation in later decades.     

浅谈城市规划与旅游产业发展——记西安市历次城市规划中对旅游资源的保护

西安历来重视对文物古迹的保护,在50年代西安是全国首批4个进行城市规划的城市之一,第一次的功能分区使得北部大面积的大遗址得以保存.80年代西安的第二次城市总体规划,又是全国首批提出历史文化名城保护的城市;90年代的总体规划,在市域范围中立体保护西安的人文景观,自然景观,控制了城市建设用地向文物遗址及自然保护区的扩张.使得西安这座拥有众多文物保护单位的城市十分成功地保留了它的特点,为西安旅游业的发展提供广阔天地.