焊点模拟方法对疲劳仿真寿命的影响

为改善焊点疲劳仿真寿命分布的合理性,基于盒状样件,讨论焊点的模拟方法对疲劳仿真寿命的影响,并进行疲劳仿真结果与试验结果的对比分析.结果表明,梁单元焊点模型和ACM焊点模型受网格尺寸的影响较大;而nugget焊点模型受网格尺寸影响相对较小,即使在焊点周边的网格尺寸一致性不好的情况下,该模型也能给出相对合理的寿命分布结果.     

随机振动载荷下电子箱PCBA焊点疲劳寿命分析

电子箱在力学载荷环境下,振动引起的高周循环疲劳应力会造成箱体中电路焊点失效,影响电子箱整机可靠性;针对一种印制电路板组件焊点进行整机级振动试验,通过建立电子箱整机有限元模型,进行与试验状态一致的随机振动试验仿真分析,提取焊点上的应力、加速度响应水平;基于Basquin模型,建立了PCBA疲劳寿命预测模型,将几种不同振动载荷下的焊点响应结果代入到预测模型,计算得到电子箱在不同振动载荷下的寿命分析结果,得到电子箱PCBA焊点的应力-寿命（S-N）曲线;结果表明,在工况随机振动条件下电子箱PCBA焊点具有足够可靠性,随着振动激励增大,焊点疲劳寿命显著缩短,该方法可用于电子箱整机级PCBA焊点随机振动疲劳寿命分析。     

CBGA与PBGA封装焊点热循环失效特性研究

陶瓷球栅阵列(CBGA)与塑料焊球阵列(PBGA)是系统级封装(SIP)器件主流的两种封装形式。主要对CBGA和PBGA两种系统级封装器件的焊点在热循环试验中寿命进行分析研究。通过对锡(Sn)合金焊料的粘塑性特性进行研究,对热循环疲劳寿命Coffin-Manson方程理论进行分析,结合仿真软件的计算,对两种封装形式焊点寿命进行定量预测。预测结果表明,CBGA封装焊点热循环条件下失效寿命约240余次,远低于PBGA封装焊点寿命1900余次。     

基于模态应力恢复的轿车发动机舱盖焊点疲劳寿命分析

建立汽车发动机舱盖焊点有限元模型,并将分析结果与试验模态对比,验证该有限元模型的准确性.分别采用准静态法和模态应力恢复法得到焊点的应力-时间历程;基于Palmgren-Miner线性损伤累积准则和S-N曲线对比评估焊点疲劳寿命,并在模态应力恢复方法中考虑截止频率和结构阻尼对焊点疲劳寿命的影响.与虚拟台架试验的对比结果表明：准静态预测的焊点寿命大于试验寿命,截止频率为200 Hz且结构阻尼为0.06的模态应力恢复结果与试验结果较吻合.基于模态应力恢复法优化设计的发动机舱盖通过耐久路试.     

微电子封装器件热失效分析与优化研究

3D立体封装技术的诞生和应用极大地丰富了微电子器件的功能,促进了微电子产品的小型化,同时也提升了电子封装器件的功率密度,使器件结构日益复杂,由此带来的器件热管理问题愈发严重。可见,热失效是微电子封装器件的主要失效形式之一。本文针对某型直流—直流功率变换器这一具有代表性的微电子封装器件进行热失效分析和优化研究,并针对器件的热循环加载形式进行改进,证明了热循环加载形式对微电子封装器件焊点热疲劳寿命的预测结果有很大影响。     

轿车设计中的焊点疲劳寿命预测方法

介绍一种焊点疲劳寿命预测的工程计算方法. 用有限元分析中的CWELD单元模拟焊核,用壳单元模拟连接板,根据CWELD单元传递力和力矩计算焊核附近连接板和焊核周围的"结构应力";然后通过一组焊点S-N曲线估计焊点的疲劳寿命. 通过分析预测焊点疲劳寿命以及相应位置,发现白车身薄弱环节.     

副车架疲劳台架试验的有限元模拟

应用有限元分析法对副车架的疲劳台架试验进行强度和疲劳分析,得到副车架的应力分布图、副车架本体寿命云图和焊点寿命云图. 通过分析,可以预测模拟制动工况的疲劳台架试验中副车架本体及焊点可能出现的强度及疲劳问题.     

基于三种GM(1,1)的BGA焊点健康预测

针对球形封装焊点健康预测过程中遇到的数据样本少、无明显变化规律、焊点失效过程难以预测等难题,引入灰色系统理论,建立差分、均值、离散三种1阶1变量灰色模型,并对焊点后期健康状况进行预测。仿真结果表明:三种灰色模型都可以实现球形封装焊点的健康预测,预测值与实测值基本吻合,均值灰色模型的预测结果好于其它两种模型。     

多因素耦合下剥落损伤随机分布特性对轴承疲劳寿命的影响

以控制力矩陀螺的角接触球轴承为研究对象,考虑环境温度、摩擦热、对流换热、轴向力和转速等复杂多应力耦合作用及剥落损伤特征,推导其传热模型、接触应力仿真模型和疲劳寿命仿真模型。对比轴承有疲劳剥落损伤和无疲劳剥落损伤2种情况,分别给出典型工况下的温度、应力和疲劳寿命结果,讨论轴向力和转速对温度和应力的影响,总结疲劳损伤的特征尺寸随机分布对应力和疲劳寿命的影响。结果表明：在同样的条件下,剥落损伤引起的应力集中效应很明显,并且会引起区域温度升高;分别改变转速和轴向力,转速对温度和应力影响更明显;随着轴向力和转速增加,损伤轴承的最高温度和最大应力的大小和增长率均大于无损伤轴承;应力和疲劳寿命对剥落区域的直径更敏感,最大应力随直径增大呈先增大后减小的抛物线形关系,并随着深度增加而减小;虽然当剥落区域取最小直径且最大深度、最小深度且最大直径这2种情况下轴承疲劳寿命大于0,但是在剥落区域直径和深度的大部分取值范围内轴承疲劳寿命均为0。     

基于速度载荷法的板级电子封装跌落失效分析

在ABAQUS软件中,建立了板级TSOP(thin small outline package)封装跌落/冲击问题的三维有限元模型.采用速度载荷法,研究了PCB(printed circuit board)、芯片引脚等的动力学响应,分析了不同支撑条件对仿真结果的影响,并结合板级TSOP封装跌落破坏实验对TSOP封装芯片的焊点失效机理进行了研究.实验结果表明,芯片的惯性力和芯片安装部位PCB的弯曲变形对焊点应力都有较大影响,焊点应力峰值出现在冲击后2ms到3ms之间,这与PCB跌落变形过程中中心部位和碰撞面"二次碰撞"所产生的芯片安装部位弯曲变形密切相关,TSOP封装芯片引脚部位的瞬时拉应力和剪切应力是导致焊点失效的主要原因.     

Dwell time and average dwell time methods based on the cycle ratio of the switching graph

A new method to find an upper bound on dwell time and average dwell time for switched linear systems is proposed. The method is based on computing the maximum cycle ratio and the maximum cycle mean of the directed graph that governs switchings. For planar switched systems, an upper bound for dwell time and average dwell time can be estimated by considering only the cycles of length two.     

Evaluation of thermo-mechanical damage and fatigue life of solar cell solder interconnections

The soldering process of interconnecting crystalline silicon solar cells to form photovoltaic (PV) module is a key manufacturing process. However, during the soldering process, stress is induced in the solar cell solder joints and remains in the joint as residual stress after soldering. Furthermore, during the module service life time, thermo-mechanical degradation of the solder joints occurs due to thermal cycling of the joints which induce stress, creep strain and strain energy. The resultant effect of damage on the solder joint is premature failure, hence shortened fatigue life. This study seeks to determine accumulated thermo-mechanical damage and fatigue life of solder interconnection in solar cell assembly under thermo-mechanical cycling conditions. In this investigation, finite element modelling (FEM) and simulations are carried out in order to determine nonlinear degradation of SnAgCu solder joints. The degradation of the solder material is simulated using Garofalo-Arrhenius creep model. A three dimensional (3D) geometric model is subjected to six accelerated thermal cycles (ATCs) utilising IEC 61215 standard for photovoltaic panels. The results demonstrate that induced stress, strain and strain energy impacts the solder joints during operations. Furthermore, the larger the accumulated creep strain and creep strain energy in the joints, the shorter the fatigue life. This indicates that creep strain and creep strain energy in the solder joints significantly impacts the thermo-mechanical reliability of the assembly joints. Regions of solder joint with critical stress, strain and strain energy values including their distribution are determined. Analysis of results demonstrates that creep energy density is a better parameter than creep strain in predicting interconnection fatigue life. The use of six ATCs yields significant data which enable better understanding of the response of the solder joints to the induced loads. Moreover, information obtained from this study can be used for improved design and better-quality fabrication of solder interconnections in solar cell assembly for enhanced thermo-mechanical reliability.     

Graph‐Based Dwell Time Computation Methods for Discrete‐Time Switched Linear Systems

Analytical computation methods are proposed for evaluating the minimum dwell time and the average dwell time guaranteeing the asymptotic stability of a discrete‐time switched linear system whose switchings are assumed to respect a given directed graph. The minimum and average dwell time can be found using the graph that governs the switchings, and the associated weights. This approach, which is used in a previous work for continuous‐time systems having non‐defective subsystems, has been adapted to discrete‐time switched systems and generalized to allow defective subsystems. Moreover, we present a novel method to improve the dwell time estimation in the case of bimodal switched systems. In this method, scaling algorithms to minimize the condition number have been used to give better minimum dwell time and average dwell time estimates.     

基于模型依赖驻留时间的异步切换控制

研究在模型依赖平均驻留时间切换策略下切换线性系统的异步切换控制问题,同时考虑模型依赖的控制器滞后时间的约束问题.在实际情况下,信号传输和系统检测等原因会导致控制器的切换滞后于子系统.基于这类情况,首先将子系统运行的区间划分为子系统与控制器相匹配的区间和非匹配的区间,根据模型依赖的驻留时间策略设计出各子系统的控制器;然后,结合模型依赖的控制器滞后时间、系统参数和Lyapunov稳定条件推导出合适的驻留时间设计参数,且使得异步切换系统全局一致指数稳定;最后通过数值仿真验证了所提出方法的有效性.     

Stabilization of Discrete‐time Switched Systems with State Constraints Based on Mode‐Dependent Average Dwell Time

This paper considers the stabilization problem for a class of switched systems with state constraints based on mode‐dependent average dwell time (MDADT) in discrete‐time context. An improved average dwell time method is proposed, which is less conservative than the common average dwell time method. The sufficient conditions and stabilizing state feedback controllers for stabilization of discrete‐time switched systems with state constraints under MDADT switching are derived. Finally, the simulation results show that the approach designed by this paper is effective.     

基于负时滞控制有效性的车辆坡道预见性驾驶

本文提出车辆坡道行驶的预见性时滞控制有效性概念,建立基于负时滞控制有效性的车辆坡道预见性驾驶的动力学控制模型,给出稳定控制的有效性判据.根据有效性控制理论,推导坡道前变速行驶的动力学特征方程,得到上坡和下坡预见性驾驶有效性控制参数范围.仿真结果表明,控制系统的有效性控制参数由不等式交集组成,与转弯系数、风阻系数和负时滞有关.选取合适的控制参数和时滞,有效设计冲坡(下坡)速度,减少油耗,实现无人驾驶车辆的生态驾驶.     

Modal and transition dwell time computation in switching systems: A set-theoretic approach

We consider a plant the dynamics of which switch among a family of systems. Each of these systems has a single stable equilibrium point. We assume that a constraint region for the state is assigned and we consider the problem of finding suitable limitations on the commutation speed in order to avoid constraints violations, even in the absence of state measurements. We introduce the concepts of modal and transition dwell times which lead to the definition of dwell time vector and dwell time graph (represented by a proper matrix), respectively. The former imposes a minimum permanence time on a discrete mode before commuting, the latter imposes the minimum permanence time on the current mode before switching to a specific new one. Both dwell time vector and dwell time graph can be computed via set-theoretic techniques. When the systems share a single equilibrium state, stability can be assured as a special case. Finally, under the assumption of affine dynamics, non-conservative values are achieved.     

Usability of various dwell times for eye-gaze-based object selection with eye tracking

This study investigates the usability of various “dwell times” for selecting visual objects with eye-gaze-based input by means of eye tracking. Two experiments are described in which participants used eye-gaze-based input to select visual objects consisting of alphanumeric characters, dots, or visual icons. First, a preliminary experiment was designed to identify the range of dwell time durations suitable for eye-gaze-based object selection. Twelve participants were asked to evaluate, on a 7-point rating scale, how easily they could perform an object-selection task with a dwell time of 250, 500, 1000, or 2000 ms per object. The evaluations showed that a dwell time of 250 ms to around 1000 ms was rated as potentially useful for object selection with eye-gaze-based input. In the following main experiment, therefore, 30 participants used eye tracking to select object sequences from a display with a dwell time of 200, 400, 800, 1000 or 1200 ms per object. Object selection time, object selection success rate, the number of object selection corrections, and dwell time evaluations were obtained. The results showed that the total time necessary to select visual objects (object selection time) increased when dwell time increased, but longer dwell times resulted in a higher object-selection success rate and fewer object selection corrections. Furthermore, regardless of object type, eye-gaze-based object selection with dwell times of 200–800 ms was significantly slower for participants with glasses than for those without glasses. Most importantly, participant evaluations showed that a dwell time of 600 ms per object was easiest to use for eye-gaze-based selection of all three types of visual objects.     

Measuring dwell time percentage from head-mounted eye-tracking data – comparison of a frame-by-frame and a fixation-by-fixation analysis

Although analysing software for eye-tracking data has significantly improved in the past decades, the analysis of gaze behaviour recorded with head-mounted devices is still challenging and time-consuming. Therefore, new methods have to be tested to reduce the analysis workload while maintaining accuracy and reliability. In this article, dwell time percentages to six areas of interest (AOIs), of six participants cycling on four different roads, were analysed both frame-by-frame and in a ‘fixation-by-fixation’ manner. The fixation-based method is similar to the classic frame-by-frame method but instead of assigning frames, fixations are assigned to one of the AOIs. Although some considerable differences were found between the two methods, a Pearson correlation of 0.930 points out a good validity of the fixation-by-fixation method. For the analysis of gaze behaviour over an extended period of time, the fixation-based approach is a valuable and time-saving alternative for the classic frame-by-frame analysis.     

Simultaneous reduced-order control and fault detection for discrete-time switched systems with relaxed persistent dwell time regularity

This paper focuses on the problem of simultaneous control and fault detection (FD) for discrete-time switched systems. The main goal is to develop a control/detection unit (CDU) associated with a switching law to control the system and detect faults simultaneously. When the switched systems are with partial measurable states, we directly use these states to construct partial control and FD signals. Next, the reduced-order CDU is designed to generate the other control and FD signals. Compared with existing results based on full-order CDU, the proposed results lead to less conservatism and reduce design complexity. The switching law is constructed in the frame of persistent dwell time (PDT) switching. A novel switching number constraint condition is introduced, which further relaxes the restrictions on the dwell time of switching processes of PDT. The less restriction on dwell time degrades the performance requirement of each subsystem and upgrades the degree of freedom for switching law design. Based on the proposed results, a class of nonweighted performance indexes is introduced to characterize the fault sensitivity and robustness. Finally, the effectiveness of the proposed method is illustrated by an example.