Determination of Electric Field and Space Charge in the Insulation of Power Cables With the Thermal Step Method and a New Mathematical Processing

This paper proposes a technique for determining the distributions of the electric field and space charge in the insulation of power cables by using the data acquired with the thermal step method (TSM). The TSM consists of applying a low-temperature step to a short-circuited or dc-energized cable and of acquiring a transient capacitive current. The processing technique described in this paper is based on a series decomposition of the electric field, the coefficients of the series being identified via the measured current. The accuracy and the stability of the calculation method are evaluated by simulations performed using various distributions of the electric field and different noise levels. An application of the technique to space charge measurements in a dc conditioned power cable is then presented.     

Thermal step method for space charge measurements under applied dcfield

The thermal step method (TSM) is a nondestructive technique which measures the distribution of the electric field and space charge density across solid insulating materials. This work first reviews the principle and the basic equations of the TSM when used on a short circuited flat insulating structure (film or plate). An evolution of the method, which allows the determination of space charge distribution in an insulator while submitted to an external dc field, is then described. The fundamentals, the experimental setup and the validation of this technique on flat samples and on power cables are presented and discussed     

采用温差法的10kV交联聚乙烯电缆水树老化评估

交联聚乙烯(XLPE)电力电缆在运行过程中受到电场、温度、水分等因素的共同影响而发生老化,引发事故,给电网的安全运行带来隐患.为此,选取水树老化10 kV XLPE电缆为研究对象,采用温差法研究了温差电流与试样老化时间的关系.实验结果表明,温差电流幅值随着试样老化时间的增加而增大;温差电流与直流电压的幅值正相关;随着电...     

热老化对纤维素绝缘纸的空间电荷及陷阱特性的影响

为理解变压器用纤维素绝缘纸在其热老化过程中的空间电荷特性演变规律及其影响机制,采用电声脉冲法研究不同老化程度绝缘纸在不同电压等级(30、15和5kV/mm)下的加压和去压后的电荷密度分布规律,分析了绝缘纸热老化程度与其空间电荷特性演变规律间的联系。结果表明:纤维素绝缘纸体内电荷注入量及注入速率与外施电场等级成正比关系。热老化能够降低纤维素绝缘纸空间电荷注入的起始阈值,并减缓绝缘纸体内电荷注入和迁移的速率,从而削弱了体内电荷的复合现象。随着热老化程度的增加,纤维素绝缘纸体内陷阱的分布密度和陷阱能级的深度都将增大,致使材料体内残留电荷不仅总量逐渐增大,而且衰减速率逐渐降低。研究成果为理解热老化对纤维素绝缘纸空间电荷积聚和消散的影响机制提供了理论支撑。     

氧化镍的热分解法制备及电化学电容器特性

采用水溶液化学沉淀法合成了b-Ni(OH)2粉末,利用热重(TG)、差热重(DTG)及红外光谱(IR)等方法对Ni(OH)2的结构和热分解特性进行了研究。以Ni(OH)2粉末作为前驱体,通过控制其在一定温度下热分解的方法制备了NiO粉末。采用发泡镍作为电极基体,以合成的NiO粉末作为活性物质制作成多孔氧化镍电极,利用循环伏安(CV)及恒电流充放电测试对氧化镍电极在碱性介质中的电化学性能进行了研究和分析。结果表明,NiO粉末材料具有典型的法拉第准电容特性,且其充放电反应的可逆性良好,适合于作为碱性电化学电容器的电极材料。     

Improved Multiple Feature-electrochemical Thermal Coupling Modeling of Lithium-ion Batteries at Low-temperature with Real-time Coefficient Correction

Monitoring various internal parameters plays a core role in ensuring the safety of lithium-ion batteries in power supply applications. It also influences the sustainability effect and online state of charge prediction. An improved multiple feature-electrochemical thermal coupling modeling method is proposed considering low-temperature performance degradation for the complete characteristic expression of multi-dimensional information. This is to obtain the parameter influence mechanism with a multi-variable coupling relationship. An optimized decoupled deviation strategy is constructed for accurate state of charge prediction with real-time correction of time-varying current and temperature effects. The innovative decoupling method is combined with the functional relationships of state of charge and open-circuit voltage to capture energy management effectively. Then, an adaptive equivalent-prediction model is constructed using the state-space equation and iterative feedback correction, making the proposed model adaptive to fractional calculation. The maximum state of charge estimation errors of the proposed method are 4.57% and 0.223% under the Beijing bus dynamic stress test and dynamic stress test conditions, respectively. The improved multiple feature-electrochemical thermal coupling modeling realizes the effective correction of the current and temperature variations with noise influencing coefficient, and provides an efficient state of charge prediction method adaptive to complex conditions.     

热脉冲法数据处理的反问题求解研究

应用热脉冲法测量聚合物薄膜电介质内空间电荷分布的数据分析过程涉及第一类Fredholm积分方程,过往先求解电场分布后微分的传统做法,会使反问题求解的不适定性带来的误差进一步放大。该文提出一种用于热脉冲法数据分析中反问题求解的直接计算空间电荷分布方法。结合一维热传导方程,推导得到了能够直接求解获取空间电荷分布的热响应电流方程。以Tikhonov正则化与尺度变换法2种数值求解算法为例,研究了不同信噪比对热脉冲法测量方法中直接计算电荷分布结果的影响,并讨论了2种数值算法直接进行空间电荷分布计算的优缺点。仿真结果表明,应用2种数值方法对含有一定噪声的数据处理时,直接计算空间电荷分布的方式相较于传统对电场分布微分的方式而言,能够很好地克服第一类Fredholm积分方程的不适定性,使解分布曲线中的振荡减少,且对仿真电流信号的噪声敏感程度更低,能更好地契合预设分布曲线,提高了空间电荷计算结果的准确性。     

Role of the temperature distribution on the PN junction behaviour in the electro‐thermal simulation

Electro‐thermal simulations of a PIN‐diode based on the finite‐element method, show a non‐uniform temperature distribution inside the device during switching transients. Hence, the implicit assumption of a uniform temperature distribution when coupling an analytical electrical model and a thermal model yields inaccurate electro‐thermal behaviour of the PIN‐diode so far. The idea of including non‐uniform temperature distribution into power semiconductor device models is not new, as accurate electro‐thermal simulations are required for designing compact power electronic systems (as IC or MCM). Instead of using a one‐dimensional finite difference or element method, the bond graphs and the hydrodynamic method are utilized to build an electro‐thermal model of the PIN‐diode. The results obtained by this original technique are compared with those obtained by a commercial finite‐element simulator. The results are similar but the computation effort of the proposed technique is a fraction of that required by finite‐element simulators. Moreover, the proposed technique may be applied easily to other power semiconductor devices. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Influence of BaTiO3 additive and electrode material onspace-charge formation in polyethylene. Evidence from thermal stepspace-charge measurements

The effects of 5% wt BaTiO₃ additive and of electrode material on space charge formation and electric field distribution in low density polyethylene (LDPE) were investigated using a thermal step technique. Space charge was formed at an average dc field of ~28 kV/mm and at 50°C. Results indicate that the addition of BaTiO₃ to LDPE has considerably reduced the remanent space charge and electric field and changed their distribution patterns in the doped material when compared with the plain material. It is also shown that the remanent space charge and electric field in plain LDPE are strongly dependent on the type of electrode material     

电声脉冲法研究热老化对160kV直流电缆绝缘材料陷阱特性的影响

交联聚乙烯(XLPE)老化会引起内部陷阱特性的变化,进而造成空间电荷分布的变化,威胁直流电缆的安全运行。对160k V直流电缆切片进行了90℃和135℃不同程度的热老化试验,并利用电声脉冲法(PEA)探究了热老化对直流电缆空间电荷分布的影响。通过分析空间电荷的衰减规律并结合等温松弛理论,提出了利用PEA法分析绝缘材料陷阱特性的方法,并对老化前后试样内的陷阱特性进行了分析研究。研究结果表明,90℃热老化前期由于后交联反应,试样部分深陷阱转为浅陷阱,直流电缆内部空间电荷消散特性变好;但随着老化时间的进一步增加,试样内的陷阱深度及密度均有一定程度的增长,空间电荷积累量也随之增加。试样在135℃高温热老化情况下,内部发生强烈的热氧反应,结晶形态遭到严重破坏,陷阱能级及密度均大大增加。     

Space charge measurements on multi-dielectrics by means of the pulsed electroacoustic method

The pulsed electroacoustic (PEA) method is now widely accepted as one of the most simple and effective techniques for the measurement of the dynamic space charge distribution in solid dielectrics. Recently, the PEA method has been applied also to laminar test objects composed of two or more layers of different dielectrics (multi-dielectrics). However, when a multi-dielectric is tested by means of the PEA method, the different acoustic and electric properties of the materials affect the detected space charge signal. In this paper, the principle of the PEA technique is reviewed in case the test object is a multi-dielectric. The generation, transmission and reflection of electrically-induced acoustic waves are described. Based on the proposed approach, results of PEA measurements performed on various kinds of multi-dielectrics are presented and discussed.     

Numerical modelling of equilibrium charge separation in poled devices

We describe an efficient numerical procedure for the equilibrium solution of the internal electric field distribution resulting from poling of photo‐refractive materials. This technique has been developed to model the equilibrium state in poled bulk devices requiring bulk charge neutrality to facilitate the modelling of blocking boundaries for a high externally applied voltage (bias) in the kV range for a small number of points. This technique is an improvement on existing conventional numerical techniques employed for modelling semiconductor devices that are intended for low bias. This method can also accommodate the modelling of planar insulators and organic optical materials. We develop an algorithm incorporating the existing Newton–Raphson method for solving Kukhtarev's equations that enforces conservation of charge within the modelled system. We apply this technique to model one‐dimensional charge separation in ultraviolet (UV) excited poling of glass and, report numerical equilibrium electric field distribution for a 2 kV bias. The convergence behaviour of the algorithm is investigated and compared against the Newton–Raphson method. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

热老化前后LDPE/SiO2纳米复合材料空间电荷积聚分析

在实际运行中,直流场强和热环境都会对聚乙烯电缆内空间电荷积聚行为产生影响,过量的空间电荷会威胁其绝缘性能,虽然纳米复合材料具备抑制空间电荷的能力,但对于热老化后其空间电荷的积聚特性仍有待进一步研究。采用电声脉冲法对热老化前后不同浓度的低密度聚乙烯(LDPE)/二氧化硅(SiO_2)纳米复合材料内空间电荷的积聚行为进行分析。结果表明,热老化会降低电极注入势垒并产生随机分布的深陷阱和杂质,增加空间电荷积累。纳米SiO_2引入的大量界面区域会产生均匀分布的深陷阱,并形成界面反电场,从而抑制载流子的运输和注入,且纳米粒子可以提高材料稳定性,提升电极注入势垒并延缓热老化进程。相比于纯LDPE,LDPE/SiO_2材料在热老化前后都具有明显的抑制空间电荷的能力。     

提升火电机组一次调频性能的火电-储能一体化系统研究

提出了一种火电-储能一体化系统的构造方法,并设计了协同调频控制策略以改善火电机组一次调频性能。在严重有功扰动场景下,利用储能装置的快速响应能力提升了火电机组的一次调频响应速率,改善系统频率跌落深度。在负荷日常波动场景下,利用储能装置响应一次调频指令的高频分量,抑制了火电机组一次调频功能的频繁动作。此外,提出了储能能量恢复控制策略,采用火电充裕的能量恢复储能荷电状态,避免储能的过度充放。算例分析表明,所提方法可有效提升火电机组的一次调频性能,并能够有效维持运行过程中储能的荷电状态。     

Electro-thermal simulation based on coupled Boltzmann transport equations for electrons and phonons

To study the thermal effect in nano-transistors, a simulator solving self-consistently the Boltzmann transport equations for both electrons and phonons has been developed. It has been used to investigate the self-heating effects in a 20 nm-long double-gate MOSFET (Fig. 1). A Monte Carlo solver for electrons is coupled with a direct solver for the steady-state phonon transport. The latter is based on the relaxation time approximation. This method is particularly efficient to provide a deep insight of the out-of-equilibrium thermal dissipation occurring at the nanometer scale when the device length is smaller than the mean free path of both charge and thermal carriers. It allows us to evaluate accurately the phonon emission and absorption spectra in both real and energy spaces.     

不同热老化程度油纸绝缘介质在直流电场中的空间电荷特性

为理解油纸绝缘介质的热老化程度与其体内空间电荷特性间的关系,对由#25矿物变压器油和普通植物纤维素绝缘纸组合而成的油浸绝缘纸试样进行加速热老化试验,应用电声脉冲（PEA）法测量了不同热老化程度下试样在直流电场（20 kV/mm）作用时和作用后的空间电荷密度分布图像,讨论了热老化程度对试样内部空间电荷分布及电荷总量的影响。结果表明：随着油浸绝缘纸试样热老化程度的加深,外加直流电场时试样中部空间电荷注入量呈增大趋势,电荷密度到达极值所需时间延长;去压后试样内部积聚电荷消散所需时间明显延长,将致使材料内部场强畸变时间增加。研究得到去压后试样内空间电荷密度极值及电荷总量与消散时间呈现指数衰减关系,可用衰减时间常数τ来表征不同老化状态油纸绝缘的电荷消散能力。该研究成果为进一步评价油纸绝缘介质在不同热老化程度下的空间电荷特性提供了参考依据。     

Current practice in space charge and polarization profile measurements using thermal techniques

Thermal techniques for probing space charge and electric field distributions in dielectric materials became available approximately 30 years ago. The techniques have reached maturity and they have been employed not only for the primary purpose of electric field or polarization profiling, but also in a wide range of problems posed by materials research. The present survey provides an overview of the historical development, the experimental implementation of the different techniques, the theoretical foundation, methods for the data analysis and a comparison of thermal and acoustic techniques. The thermal wave technique LIMM is used as an example among the thermal techniques, for a discussion of data analysis techniques and for the spatial resolution that can be achieved with thermal wave techniques. A tour d'horizon is provided through recent applications of thermal techniques, in order to demonstrate their capabilities for dielectric material characterisation.     

Dynamic observation of needle-plane surface-discharge using theelectro-optical Pockels effect

Dynamic observation of surface charge distribution is the main advantage of the electro-optical Pockels effect technique over the dust figure technique, the photographic Lichtenberg figure technique, and the static potential probe scanning method. This technique is demonstrated here to observe the surface charge distribution deposited by partial discharge during application of one period of an 8 kV sinusoidal voltage to a needle-dielectric plane electrode system with zero gap spacing. Polarity effect and backdischarge are prominent in ac surface discharges. The observed polarity effect in the charge pattern shows that if the dielectric surface is initially free of surface charge, positive `streamer' channels burst out intermittently and radially from the needle tip resulting in a spoke-like surface charge distribution, while negative streamers expand almost uniformly in all radial directions resulting in a nearly circular surface charge distribution. This behavior results in quasi-permanent positive surface charges. Residual negative surface charge from prior discharges has a considerable influence on the trajectory of subsequent positive streamer discharges, i.e. causing deviation of positive streamer channels from the radial direction; whereas residual positive surface charge has little influence on the radial development of surface charge from subsequent negative discharges. This measurement technique has a potential for widespread application in investigating the dynamics of surface charging phenomena     

Space charge in XLPE power cable under dc electrical stress andheat treatment

It is well known that the existence and accumulation of space charge in insulation can be harmful to polymer power cable. Although there is much research done on space charge distribution in various samples, there are still some important problems left unsolved, such as the mechanism of formation and elimination of space charge in dielectrics. Because of its superiority, the pulsed electro-acoustic (PEA) measurement method is used widely in the measurement of space charge in various geometries of samples such as the multiple layer plate and cylindrical cables. The space charge in crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) power cable under dc voltage and heat treatment is investigated by the PEA method in this paper. After heat treatment, the space charge, which previously formed in cable insulation under the applied voltage, disappears. If electrical stress is applied to the insulation again, space charge will appear once more. However, after the cable is heated and degassed in vacuum for a long time, no matter how long the dc voltage is applied to the cable, no more space charge will be formed in the cable. The mechanism of formation and elimination of space charge under the effect of electrical and thermal stress is discussed     

Space charge measurements in polymeric HV insulation materials

This paper reports on a study using the laser induced pressure propagation (LIPP) method to measure the space charge characteristics in bulk crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) insulation under dc electric stress. Particular attention has been given to the quantitative appraisal of calibration parameters, and the resultant estimations of space charge and electric stress distributions. A method is described for analyzing the measured raw data from ramp voltage and aging tests to give an estimate of charge and stress without resorting to a complicated mathematical exercise. The consequence of stress enhancement due to the trapped charge on the life of the insulation is estimated using the empirical inverse law. Using analysis of variance and a multivariate analysis technique, the effects of treatment and type of XLPE on the space charge characteristics are also discussed