Nonlinearly viscoelastic analysis of asphalt mixes subjected to shear loading

This study presents the characterization of the nonlinearly viscoelastic behavior of hot mix asphalt (HMA) at different temperatures and strain levels using Schapery’s model. A recursive-iterative numerical algorithm is generated for the nonlinearly viscoelastic response and implemented in a displacement-based finite element (FE) code. Then, this model is employed to describe experimental frequency sweep measurements of two asphalt mixes with fine and coarse gradations under several combined temperatures and shear strain levels. The frequency sweep measurements are converted to creep responses in the time domain using a phenomenological model (Prony series). The master curve is created for each strain level using the time temperature superposition principle (TTSP) with a reference temperature of 40°C. The linear time-dependent parameters of the Prony series are first determined by fitting a master curve created at the lowest strain level, which in this case is 0.01%. The measurements at strain levels higher than 0.01% are analyzed and used to determine the nonlinear parameters. These parameters are shown to increase with increasing strain levels, while the time–temperature shift function is found to be independent of strain levels. The FE model with the calibrated time-dependent and nonlinear material parameters is used to simulate the creep experimental tests, and reasonable predictions are shown.     

A new viscoelastic method of calculation of low-temperature thermal stresses in asphalt layers of pavements

The paper presents a new method of calculation of thermal stresses in asphalt layers of pavements induced by cooling or heating. The method, developed by the author, is based on the analytical solution for the linear viscoelastic Burgers model extended numerically for the case of asphalt layers whose rheological parameters are strongly dependent on temperature. The coefficient of thermal expansion and Poisson’s ratio may optionally be taken either as constant or varying with temperature. Two equivalent numerical methods have been developed, named as ‘the incremental method’ and ‘the stress increase and relaxation method’. The computer program was developed for calculation of thermal stresses in several different cases of temperature impact, included constant rate cooling and heating, change of temperature and relaxation and a cycle of first cooling, relaxation and second cooling. What the most important practically, the solution for any change of temperature, modelling real winter changes in long period of time, was also developed. Several examples of calculations are presented. The results obtained with use of this method are promising and appear to be acceptable. The advantages of the new method in comparison with existing methods are that it takes fully into account the viscoelastic properties of a layer and the method is correct if the material does not meet the time–temperature superposition principle.     

Verification of the new viscoelastic method of thermal stress calculation in asphalt layers of pavements

The new viscoelastic method of thermal stress calculations in asphalt layers has been developed and published recently by the author. This paper presents verification of this method. The verification is based on the comparison of the results of calculations with results of testing of thermal stresses in Thermal Stress Restrained Specimen Test. The calculations of thermal stresses according to the new method were based on rheological parameters of the Burgers model. The parameters were measured in laboratory at different low temperatures, at long time creep under constant loading. Five asphalt mixes were tested. Three of them were high modulus asphalt concretes and two conventional asphalt concretes. Specimens were prepared in exactly the same way both for rheological creep tests and for the Thermal Stress Restrained Specimen Test. The results of measured thermal stresses were compared with thermal stresses calculated from the new viscoelastic method developed by the author and in most cases a good agreement was found. For comparison, the measured stresses were compared with results of calculations according to the existing methods. The viscoelastic Monismith method failed in prediction of thermal stresses. The prediction from the quasi-elastic Hills and Brien method was underestimated, but better than from the Monismith method and worse than from the new viscoelastic method. The reasons of discrepancies were discussed.     

Sensitivity analysis of dynamic response and fatigue behaviour of various asphalt concrete mixtures

This paper presents the dynamic response (|E*|) and fatigue behaviour of various asphalt concrete mixtures subjected to sinusoidal compressive loading. Eight different wearing and base mixtures including Superpave, Asphalt Institute, British Standard dense bituminous macadam and Pakistan's National Highway Authority gradations were selected, and gyratory compacted specimens were fabricated. Laboratory investigations of |E*| at various temperatures (4.4 to 54.4 °C) and loading frequencies (0.1 to 25 Hz) were used to construct stress‐dependent master curves separately, for wearing and base course mixtures. The indicators of dynamic response and viscous (or elastic) properties of the mixtures were used to derive fatigue parameter to estimate the resistance to fatigue, and results revealed that Superpave wearing and NHA‐B base course had better resistance to fatigue for evaluated mixtures. Also, the sensitivity of the dynamic modulus to the variation in hot mix asphalt mix properties using different aggregate gradation, diverse loading frequencies and temperature were evaluated.     

温拌剂种类及掺量对不同沥青流变性能的影响

为了研究温拌剂种类及掺量对沥青流变性能的影响,通过动态剪切流变仪对分别掺加RH和Evotherm温拌剂的SBS改性沥青和基质沥青进行温度扫描试验,分析了它们的复数剪切模量、相位角和车辙因子。结果表明,Evotherm温拌剂在28~52℃能够提升两种沥青抗车辙性能,52℃后效果减弱;并且在28~40℃间可以提高两种沥青弹性恢复性能,40℃后会使SBS改性沥青弹性恢复性能减弱,对基质沥青无影响。增加Evotherm温拌剂掺量,在28~52℃会使温拌SBS改性沥青抗车辙性能提高,使温拌基质沥青抗车辙性能有所减弱,52℃后影响不明显。RH温拌剂在28~46℃对两种沥青抗车辙性能略有不利,但负面作用随温度升高逐渐减弱甚至消失;RH温拌剂能够显著增大两种沥青高温时弹性恢复性能。RH温拌剂掺量增大会使两种沥青抗车辙性能降低,但会使弹性恢复性能增强。     

Impact of nanosized additives on the fatigue damage behaviour of asphalt mixtures

The study presented in this paper aimed at evaluating the impact of different nanosized additives, including an organophilic nanoclay and multiwall carbon nanotubes, on the fatigue properties of dense‐graded asphalt mixtures. Cyclic direct tension fatigue tests were carried out, and the corresponding results were interpreted by means of a simplified version of the visco‐elastic continuum damage model. The experimental investigation also included linear viscoelastic characterization of the considered materials. Results derived from tests carried out on the mixtures containing nanosized additives were compared with those obtained for a reference standard mixture. It was found that the use of the abovementioned additives can give a substantial contribution to the enhancement of the fatigue damage resistance of asphalt mixtures. Moreover, when comparing the two types of additives, it was observed that organophilic nanoclays can outperform multiwall carbon nanotubes.     

Life cycle assessment framework for asphalt pavements: methods to calculate and allocate energy of binder and additives

The construction, maintenance and disposal of asphalt pavements may lead to considerable environmental impacts, in terms of energy use and emissions during the life of the pavement. In order to enable quantification of the potential environmental impacts due to construction, maintenance and disposal of roads, an open life cycle assessment (LCA) framework for the asphalt pavements is presented in this paper. Emphasis was placed on the calculation and allocation of energy used for binder and additives at the project level. It was concluded from this study that when progressing from LCA to its corresponding life cycle cost, the feedstock energy of the binder becomes highly relevant as the cost of the binder will be reflected in its alternative value as fuel. Regarding additives like wax, a framework for energy allocation was suggested. The suggested project level LCA framework was demonstrated in a limited case study of a Swedish asphalt pavement. It was concluded that the asphalt production and transporting materials were the two most energy-consuming processes, emitting most greenhouse gases depending on the fuel type and electricity mix.     

Improved method of considering air void and asphalt content changes on long-term performance of asphalt concrete pavements

Mixture properties (aggregate gradation and volumetric quantities), rate of loading and environmental conditions are the most important factors that affect the |E*| values. The main objective of this study was to develop a rational approach to investigate and model the effect of air voids and asphalt content on the |E*| master curves and consequently predict pavement performance. In this study, |E*| tests were conducted on three asphalt concrete mixtures with the same aggregate gradation, but different binder grades. For each of these mixtures, the air void and asphalt contents were varied at three levels. It is found that the developed method provides a more accurate estimate of the effects of volumetric changes in hot mix asphalt. The application of the proposed approach would be most beneficial for quality control/quality assurance purposes, performance-related specifications and for estimating contractors' incentives and penalties, where |E*| is utilised to predict the pavement performance.     

基于分数阶黏弹性模型的温拌改性沥青低温性能

基于分数阶黏弹性模型,通过低温弯曲梁流变试验（BBR）分析RH和Evotherm温拌剂对苯乙烯-丁二烯-苯乙烯嵌段共聚物（SBS）改性沥青低温性能的影响。结果表明：利用BBR试验数据拟合出的分数阶黏弹性模型参数可较好地预估温拌改性沥青的蠕变柔量和蠕变速率; RH温拌剂可以提高SBS改性沥青的阻尼比和耗散能比,但Evotherm温拌剂在低于-18℃时不能够提高;因7种沥青按照阻尼比和耗散能比排序相同,故也可以将阻尼比作为温拌改性沥青低温性能的一种评价指标; RH可以改善沥青的蠕变柔量,提高黏性流动柔量,且掺量越高改善效果越好,但不能提高黏弹性比,故不能用黏弹性比评价温拌SBS改性沥青的低温性能,而Evotherm温拌剂的规律性不强;两种温拌剂都在低于-24℃时对SBS改性沥青的低温性能改善不佳。     

Estimation of optimum binder content of recycled asphalt incorporating a wax warm additive using response surface method

This paper presents a new approach to estimate the optimum binder content (OBC) of recycled asphalts (RAs) incorporating a warm mix additive based on the interaction effects of compaction temperature, RA content and binder content using volumetric and strength characterisation. The experimental design was developed using response surface method (RSM) based on central composite design for various compaction temperatures (130–160 °C), RA contents (30–50%) and binder contents (4.9–6.0%). Laboratory tests were performed and analysed to meet the desired volumetric and strength properties according to the Malaysian specifications for the design of dense asphalt mixtures. Statistical analysis and mathematical models proposed by RSM were used to determine the OBC. The results showed that compaction temperature is the most significant factor in determining the OBC. There are minimum differences in the OBC variation of samples incorporating different dosage of RA. The developed model can be used for quick estimation of OBC for various levels of compaction temperature and RA content.     

沥青结合料老化对路面功能层力学性能的影响

为考察沥青结合料老化对路面功能层力学性能的影响,运用Bisar和Ansys程序计算了不同老化程度的沥青路面的应力应变分布情况.通过计算分析可知:沥青层中产生的最大拉应力位于路表面双轮中心处;路面老化后,沥青层中产生的最大拉应力增加,最大拉应变与未老化路面相比,基本处于同一水平;在老化的前期(老化程度较轻时),沥青路面层内产生的最大剪应力远大于沥青路面层产生的最大拉应力;随着路面老化程度的加深,路面表面双轮中心处的拉应力(沥青层内产生的最大拉应力)接近甚至大于沥青面层的最大剪应力;这表明,路面在使用前期容易发生剪切破坏,随着路面老化程度的加深,路面更容易产生拉伸破坏.     

Effects of recycled asphalt pavements on the fatigue life of asphalt under different strain levels and loading frequencies

Fatigue lives of Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) and binder have been studied separately for a long time. However, fatigue lives of HMA containing Recycled Asphalt Pavement (RAP) and the binder extracted from the same HMA containing RAP have not been studied yet. This study examines the effects of RAP, loading frequency and strain level on the fatigue lives of asphalt mixtures and binders. In addition, the relationship between the fatigue lives of asphalt mixture and binder is determined. Beam fatigue tests were conducted to determine the fatigue behaviors of two asphalt mixtures: one with 35% RAP and the other without RAP. To evaluate binder’s fatigue behavior, binders were extracted and recovered from these two mixtures. Then, fatigue lives of these two binders were determined using time sweep and Linear Amplitude Sweep (LAS) tests. Results show that presence of RAP in mixture causes a decrease in the mixture’s fatigue life, whereas it causes an increase in the fatigue life of binder. As expected, an increase in loading frequency results in an increase in the fatigue lives of asphalt mixture as well as binder. In addition, increase in strain level causes a decrease in the fatigue lives of both mixtures and binders. Fatigue lives of binders from time sweep and LAS tests show a good correlation with the mixture’s fatigue life by the beam fatigue test.     

Using the surface free energy method to evaluate the effects of liquid antistrip additives on moisture sensitivity in hot mix asphalt

The objectives of this research are to evaluate the susceptibility of aggregates and asphalt binder with and without liquid antistrip (LAA) additives to moisture damage based on the properties that affect the adhesion bond between the aggregate and asphalt binder and the cohesion strength of the asphalt binder using the surface free energy (SFE) concept and laboratory testing. The percentage of the aggregate surface area that was exposed to water (P) due to each cycle was used as a screening parameter for evaluating the compatibility of the asphalt binder and aggregates in terms of the resistance to moisture damage. The results show that adding LAA causes the total SFE of the asphalt binder to increase, which results in a decrease in stripping between the aggregate and asphalt binder in the presence of water. Similar results were obtained from a dynamic modulus test. From the data obtained, we conclude that LAA caused a reduction of the magnitude of P that improves its resistance to moisture damage.     

基于流变学的橡胶粉与基质沥青配伍性试验

基于流变学理论研究橡胶粉与不同来源基质沥青的配伍性,采用动态剪切流变仪（DSR）分别对不同基质沥青加工而成的橡胶沥青进行应变扫描、温度扫描、频率扫描等常规动态剪切流变试验,从相位角、复合模量和车辙因子等指标评价橡胶沥青黏弹特性,定性区分沥青四组分对橡胶沥青黏弹特性的影响,并对橡胶沥青进行滞回环试验,运用灰色关联数学分析方法定量给出沥青四组分对橡胶沥青的残余变形、弹性贮能、耗散能、弹性比例和复合弹性模量等指标的影响。结果表明：流变学理论是研究橡胶粉改性剂与基质沥青配伍性的有效方法;从能量角度评价沥青四组分对橡胶沥青黏弹特性指标的影响,沥青质对橡胶沥青残余应变影响较大;胶质组分对橡胶沥青弹性贮能和耗散能影响最大,而芳香分影响最小;沥青质组分对橡胶沥青弹性比例参数影响最大;芳香分含量可以提高橡胶沥青复合模量。     

Influence of confinement pressure and air voids on the repeated creep and recovery of asphalt concrete mixtures

A laboratory investigation was conducted to capture the influence of confinement pressure and specimen air voids on the creep and recovery response of asphalt concrete (AC) mixtures. AC specimens were fabricated at 2% and 7% air voids and tested at three temperatures (20, 40 and 55°C) and at unconfined and confined conditions (100 and 200 kPa). A total of 20,000 repetitions of a repeated trapezoidal loading and recovery cycle were applied. The resulting creep curves showed four distinct patterns of the three-stage creep curve depending on the loading condition and specimen density. To quantify the mechanical response during the secondary stage where the response was found to be linear, linear viscoelastic modelling was carried out. Using creep time, energy stored and energy dissipated, which were determined from model parameters; the influence of air voids and confinement pressure was quantified.     

Influence of shear properties and fibre imperfections on the compressive behaviour of GFRP laminates

The influence of shear strength properties and fibre misalignment on the compressive behaviour of unidirectional glass fibre-polypropylene laminates has been examined. Tests were conducted between 20°C and 120°C to provide variation in the constitutive behaviour of the polymer matrix and consequently variation in the support provided to the glass fibres. It was found that the laminate loses strength as the operating temperature increases and failure occurs due to fibre microbuckling. At temperatures higher than 50°C the failure mode switches from in-plane to out-of-plane microbuckling. As the test temperature increases the shear strength and stiffness of the resin are considerably reduced; this decreases the amount of side support for the fibres and reduces the strain level at which fibre buckling initiates. Growth of this damage requires little additional load, suggesting that compression strength is controlled by initiation, rather than propagation of microbuckling. Fracture characteristics have been identified using optical and scanning electron microscopy. Recent theoretical models have been employed to predict the compressive stress-strain response and strength.     

Influence of post weld treatments on the fatigue behaviour of Al-alloy welded joints

In this paper the influence of different post welding treatments, such as ageing or shot peening, on the fatigue behaviour of Al-alloy welded joints was investigated. The analysed joints were candidates for car structural applications. Several four point bending fatigue tests were conducted on GMAW specimens subjected to different post weld treatments. The residual stress field acting on specimens was measured by the X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique. The results of tests were discussed with the aid of a finite element model of the specimen aimed to calculate the actual fatigue cycle, also taking account of residual stresses and of their redistribution during the test. This allowed to characterize the fatigue resistance of the joints, taking account of the effective stress acting in the region of crack initiation.     

Influence of additives on the global mechanical behavior and the microscopic strain localization in wood reinforced polypropylene composites during tensile deformation investigated using digital image correlation

The structural integrity of polypropylene (PP) matrix composites reinforced by natural wood fibers is investigated by digital image correlation (DIC) coupled with tensile tests. The use of the material as an alternative construction material requires extensive understanding of its micromechanical properties, which primarily define its performance. Addition of several additives such as coupling agents is common practice for such materials. These ingredients improve the performance of these materials mainly by improvement of the chemical and physical interactions between the nonpolar matrix and the polar wood fibers. These interactions facilitate the transfer of the applied deformation particularly in the interphase region between the polymer matrix and the reinforcing fibers. Such localized changes can influence the performance of the material specially its micromechanical behavior. The DIC via photogrammetry was used to study the spatial distribution of the accumulated plastic surface strain, which is based on pattern recognition of the surface before and after straining. The heterogeneous strain distribution reveals a structural inhomogeneity of the material. The magnitude of local strain was much higher than the global strain, suggesting preferred regions for plastic deformation formed by the microstructure.