Water pipeline failure due to water hammer effects

A numerical model has been established in order to simulate the propagation of pressure waves in water networks. The present model formulation is based on a system of partial hyperbolic differential equations. This system has been solved via the characteristics method. The current model provides the necessary data and the necessary damping of water hammer waves, taking into account the structure of the pipe network and the pressure loss. The numerical algorithm estimates the maximum pressure values resulting from the water hammer when closing valves in the network and consequently, the maximum stresses in the pipes have been calculated. In the case of simultaneous closing of several valves, the over pressure can exceed the admissible pressure. In this case, the severity of a defect such as a corrosion crater (pit) has been estimated by computing a safety factor for the stress distribution at the defect tip. This allows the applied notch stress intensity factor to be obtained. To investigate the defect geometry effects, semi‐spherical and semi‐elliptical defects are deemed to exist in up to one‐half of the thickness of the pipe wall. The outcomes have been introduced into the structural integrity assessment procedure (SINTAP) failure diagram assessment (FAD) in order to obtain the safety factor value. Conventionally, it is considered that a failure hazard exists if this safety factor is less than two.     

Failure analysis of natural gas pipes

Incident involving failures of 6 months old API 5L X42 (NPS8) and SDR 17, 125 mm medium density polyethylene pipe (MDPE) supplying natural gas to an industrial customer has caused serious 7 h supply disruption. Study was performed to identify the most probable cause of the pipes failures. The study conducted by reviewing the existing design and construction data, visual physical inspection, pipe material analysis, structural analysis using NASTRAN and Computational Fluid Dynamics analysis (CFD) using FLUENT. Investigations revealed that high pressure water jet from leaked water pipe had completely mixed with surrounding soil forming water soil slurry (high erosive properties) formed at a close vicinity of these pipes. Continuous impaction of this slurry upon the API 5L X42 pipe surface had caused losses of the pipe coating materials. Corrosion quickly ensued and material loss was rapid because of the continuous erosion of oxidised material that occurred simultaneously. This phenomenon explains the rapid thinning of the steel pipe body which later led to its failure. Metallurgical study using photomicrograph shows that the morphology of the steel material was consistent and did not show any evidence of internal corrosion or micro fractures. The structural and CFD simulation results proved that the location, rate and the extent of erosion failures on the pipe surfaces can be well predicted, as compared with actual instances.     

Optimal long-term design,rehabilitation and upgrading of water distribution networks

Given a limited budget, the choice of the best water distribution network upgrading strategy is a complex optimization problem. A model for the optimal long-term design and upgrading of new and existing water distribution networks is presented. A key strength of the methodology is the use of maximum entropy flows, which reduces the size of the problem and enables the application of linear programming for pipe size optimization. It also ensures the reliability level is high. The capital and maintenance costs and hydraulic performance are considered simultaneously for a predefined design horizon. The timing of upgrading over the entire planning horizon is obtained by dynamic programming. The deterioration over time of the structural integrity and hydraulic capacity of every pipe are explicitly considered. The upgrading options considered include pipe paralleling and replacement. The effectiveness of the model is demonstrated using the water supply network of Wobulenzi town in Uganda.     

Failure resistance of drilling rig casing pipes with an axial crack

Working conditions of casing pipes in drilling rigs can significantly influence the initiation and development of damage in the material, and therefore also the safe service of the entire system. In this work, an integrity assessment of a pipe with initial defect (machined surface crack) is presented. The position of this defect is on the external surface; unlike transport pipes, where internal surface is often endangered due to the contact with the fluid, casing pipes are also often exposed to damages at the external surface. A pipe segment exposed to internal pressure is examined experimentally and numerically, using the finite element method. Experimental setup included tracking of crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) values, as well as J integral. Criteria for pipe failure are determined on the finite element (FE) models of the pipe; fracture initiation and plastic collapse are considered as failure mechanisms. Several 3D models with different crack sizes are evaluated. 2D plane strain models are also examined, to determine the applicability limits of this simplified approach. Integrity assessment criteria for the analysed geometries are discussed. Assessment of fracture resistance of the pipeline material is also considered in this work. Besides the standard SENB specimens, Ring specimens cut from the pipe are tested, and the results are compared. Both specimen geometries are modelled using local approach to fracture, by application of the micromechanical Complete Gurson model (CGM), developed by Z.L. Zhang. It is shown that the Ring specimens have similar fracture conditions under bending load as SENB specimens. Since they are much simpler to fabricate from the pipe than standard specimens, it is concluded that they can be used for assessment of fracture of the pipes with axial cracks.     

The long-term behaviour of an aluminium-reinforced polyethylene pressure pipe

The long-term behaviour of an aluminium-reinforced polyethylene pressure pipe has been explored by undertaking stress rupture tests at 60 and 80 °C. The results of the tests showed these macrocomposite pipes have a time-dependent strength, such that with an increasing time under load the strength declined. In addition the pipes were weaker at 80 °C when compared to the 60 °C strength. The analysis of the influence of time and temperature on strength showed these multilayer pipes can be considered to behave as do conventional homogeneously structured plastic pipes, and that to describe the influence of time on the pipe strength, the accepted procedures developed for conventional plastics pipes can be applied. In addition the mode of failure of the pipes was examined. Pipe failure initiates by the strain-controlled failure of the reinforcing aluminium layer. The polyethylene layers then fail almost instantaneously in a ductile mode. This analysis of the mode of failure was supported by freeze-thaw cycling tests to – 25 °C and the 60 and 80 °C stress rupture tests.     

The performance and causes of failure of polyethylene pipes subjected to constant and fluctuating internal pressure loadings

Three different pipe-grade polyethylenes, in the form of one large and three small diameter pipe systems, have been tested at elevated temperatures, using constant and fluctuating internal pressure loadings that resulted in brittle fractures. The behaviour under fatigue of two of the three types of small diameter polyethylene pipes was substantially described by a cumulative damage model, whilst the third exhibited a fatigue weakness, an observation not previously reported. The performance of the large diameter pipes under fatigue was dominated by the presence of large voids in the pipe wall that arose from incorrect processing and resulted in premature failure. The sites of crack initiation in one material grade of the small diameter systems were examined in detail. In particular the size, position and composition of particles initiating fracture were determined. The maximum particle size on the fracture surface of the pipe was found to correlate reasonably well with a measure of pipe lifetime, as predicted by a fracture mechanics approach, and indicated that the lifetime of this one type of polyethylene pipe was dependent on the size of the inclusions initiating fracture.     

A physical probabilistic model to predict failure rates in buried PVC pipelines

For older water pipeline materials such as cast iron and asbestos cement, future pipe failure rates can be extrapolated from large volumes of existing historical failure data held by water utilities. However, for newer pipeline materials such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC), only limited failure data exists and confident forecasts of future pipe failures cannot be made from historical data alone. To solve this problem, this paper presents a physical probabilistic model, which has been developed to estimate failure rates in buried PVC pipelines as they age. The model assumes that under in-service operating conditions, crack initiation can occur from inherent defects located in the pipe wall. Linear elastic fracture mechanics theory is used to predict the time to brittle fracture for pipes with internal defects subjected to combined internal pressure and soil deflection loading together with through-wall residual stress. To include uncertainty in the failure process, inherent defect size is treated as a stochastic variable, and modelled with an appropriate probability distribution. Microscopic examination of fracture surfaces from field failures in Australian PVC pipes suggests that the 2-parameter Weibull distribution can be applied. Monte Carlo simulation is then used to estimate lifetime probability distributions for pipes with internal defects, subjected to typical operating conditions. As with inherent defect size, the 2-parameter Weibull distribution is shown to be appropriate to model uncertainty in predicted pipe lifetime. The Weibull hazard function for pipe lifetime is then used to estimate the expected failure rate (per pipe length/per year) as a function of pipe age. To validate the model, predicted failure rates are compared to aggregated failure data from 17 UK water utilities obtained from the United Kingdom Water Industry Research (UKWIR) National Mains Failure Database. In the absence of actual operating pressure data in the UKWIR database, typical values from Australian water utilities were assumed to apply. While the physical probabilistic failure model shows good agreement with data recorded by UK water utilities, actual operating pressures from the UK is required to complete the model validation.     

有压管道水击波动过程及优化控制的解析研究

为了实现阀调节对有压管道水击过程的精确控制,获得水击波动过程的解析解很有意义。该文在详细分析水击基本微分方程组及初边值条件的基础上,将波动方程在有限区间内的行波解应用于线性水击波动问题中。通过给定阀门处速度变化规律,引入曲线积分与路径无关条件,得到了阀门关闭过程中管道内无因次水击压强的精确解析解。应用Ritz法求解泛函极值,得到了使管道阀门处峰值压强为最小值时所对应的速度变化及相应的关阀规律。以此构建程序控制,就可最大限度地削减水击压强,以求通过阀门来实施对水击过程的主动控制。     

Finite volume method and multigrid acceleration in modelling of rapid crack propagation in full-scale pipe test

Rapid Crack Propagation (RCP) along pressurised plastic pipes is by far the most dangerous pipe failure mode. Despite the economic benefits offered by increasing pipe size and operating pressure, both strategies increase the risk and the potential consequences of RCP. It is therefore extremely important to account for RCP in establishing the safe operational conditions. Combined experimental-numerical study is the only reliable approach of addressing the problem, and extensive research is undertaken by various fracture groups (e.g. Southwest Research Institute – USA, Imperial College – UK). This paper presents numerical results from finite volume modelling of full-scale test on medium density polyethylene gas pressurised pipes. The crack speed and pressure profile are prescribed in the analysis. Both steady-state and transient RCPs are considered, and the comparison between the two shown. The steady-state results are efficiently achieved employing a full multigrid acceleration technique, where sets of progressively finer grids are used in V-cycles. Also, the effect of inelastic behaviour of polyethylene on RCP results is demonstrated.     

中空纤维超滤系统的水锤分析及防护

超滤系统的物理清洗是通过阀门频密开启和关闭、水泵的交替起动和停机来实现的,这使液体流速产生急剧变化;并引起很高的水锤压力,造成管道及膜元件损坏.分析了超滤系统出现关阀水锤及停泵水锤的成因,提出相应的防护措施.     

城市供水管网系统抗震功能可靠度分析

借鉴结构可靠度分析方法,给出了供水管网抗震功能可靠度分析的一次二阶矩方法。将渗漏面积作为供水管网管线震害的量化参数,使得震后供水管网的功能能够通过带渗漏供水管网的水力分析结果加以反映。通过引入供水管网系统随机水力模型,建立了渗漏面积为随机参数时管网节点水压的均值及方差计算格式。应用一次二阶矩方法,得到供水管网系统的抗震功能可靠度。通过实例分析反映了随机参数的相关系数对管网抗震可靠度的影响,并且比较了均值一次二阶矩法和改进一次二阶矩法的计算结果。     

浅析地表水水源热泵换热器盘管管材选用

首先介绍了水源热泵的工作原理和地表水水源热泵换热器盘管的安装形状。详细说明了地表水水源热泵换热器盘管对管材的性能要求,列举了几种常用给水塑料管材和金属管材并说明它们的技术性能,最后采用模糊综合评判方法对各种管材相对主要性能因素进行评判比较,选择出最优管材,江河水源热泵换热器盘管若采用线圈状安装形式,建议选用HDPE管;若采用U形状安装形式,建议选用铜管。     

Failure analysis: Vapor overheads discharge line for high level radioactive waste evaporator

A 2 in. schedule 40 steel (60.3 mm diameter, 3.91 mm wall) core pipe in an evaporator overheads discharge line broke at several locations downstream from a section of the line that bridges a road. The failure occurred during pump restart. Fish mouth openings that developed along the pipe seams were initiated at lack of fusion defects in the pipe welds. Full drainage of the water from the pipe did not occur when the pump was shut down because such drainage created an upstream vacuum in the piping system. Freezing of water in the pipe (the line was not heat traced) and water hammer during pump restart each contributed to the extensive deformation and tearing observed at the breaks. The weld flaws served as crack initiation sites and the water hammer provided the overpressure that led to the fish mouth fracture. The pipe was replaced and a vacuum break was installed to eliminate the drainage problem.     

Failure analysis of a PVC sewer pipeline by fractography and materials characterization

Sewer rising mains are an integral part of wastewater network and convey sewage under pressure between gravity fed systems or from gravity systems to treatment plants. The failure of a rising main can result in significant volumes of sewage being discharged to sensitive environments, significant clean-up costs and severe indirect consequences being incurred.This paper describes the analysis of an Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC-U) pressure sewer (sewer rising main), nominal diameter 200 mm, pressure class 12, that failed prematurely after 34 years of service considering the design life of >100 years. It was hypothesised that the root cause of pipe failure was either material degradation from exposure to an aggressive environment (the conveyed sewage) or an inherent defect in the pipe. To test this hypothesis, a thorough visual examination of the exhumed failed section and the fracture surface was undertaken, followed by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, micro-scale examination of the fracture surface using Scanning Electron Microscopy and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectrometry. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy showed no evidence of material degradation due to contact with sewage. Visual and micro-scale examination revealed that failure occurred in two major stages initiated at an inherent defect (foreign inclusion) in the pipe wall that was attributed to the original manufacture. In addition to the initiating defect in the pipe wall, numerous other potential stress risers were also identified. The application of an established crack growth model predicted pipe failure close to the observed lifetime. Application of the staged methodology presented is recommended to establish relationships between manufacturing eras of PVC pipes and severity of inherent defects.     

大口径高性能聚氯乙烯管道研发与工程安全保障技术

该文围绕大口径高性能聚氯乙烯管道的混配料配方设计、制造设备研发、生产工艺优化、管材质量评定、管线工程安全评价、运行监测与病害修复等关键技术,通过产学研用相结合,持续10余年攻关取得一系列突破性创新成果：研发了新型聚氯乙烯管材复合改性增韧混配料,优化了管材材料配比,创新了大口径高性能聚氯乙烯管材模具与工艺,首创了国内唯一直径1800 mm大口径聚氯乙烯管生产线;研发了具有高强、高韧、高抗冲的聚氯乙烯管道新产品：ABR管(给水用丙烯酸酯共混聚氯乙烯管),建立了ABR管质量评价方法,开展了ABR管管材拉伸、热膨胀和ABR管内、外压结构承载性能试验;创建了复杂运营环境下大口径管线工程安全评价方法,系统开展了落石冲击、土体塌陷、滑坡和和地质断层等自然灾害作用下的埋地聚氯乙烯管线工程安全性能原型试验与数值模拟;开展了基于光纤传感技术的管道变形健康监测试验,研发了新型管道内检测设备—“谛听”机器人,结合“谛听”机器人与目标检测人工智能算法进行了管道缺陷定位识别与病害诊断,提出了Spetec注浆堵漏加固、不锈钢快速锁修复技术、树脂固化局部修复工艺、紫外光固化内衬的整体不开挖修复技术,实现了对聚氯乙烯管...     

制冷管道中的气锤现象

本文通过对冷库制冷系统管道的事故原因分析,并与水锤现象进行对比,说明了制冷系统回气管道中出现气锤现象的原因,并提出了解决气锤现象的方法.     

Location and Sizing of Defects in Coated Metallic Pipes Using Limited View Scattered Data in Frequency Domain

The inverse problem of reconstructing the location and size of defects in a coated metallic pipe from single frequency limited view electromagnetic scattered field is considered. Specifically, the paper addresses the problem of assessing shape changes in the shadow region entailed by limited view data in 2D by operating in an intermediate size parameter (ka) range. The inverse scattering problem is formulated as a non-linear optimization problem solved through genetic algorithm that seeks to minimize in the least-squared sense the difference between measured data and simulated data through iterations of the solution to a forward problem. The hybrid finite element boundary integral formulations were used to solve the forward problem of coated metallic pipe with defects. The proposed inversion methodology was applied for shadow region shape change assessment to determine whether a metal pipe is coated or not, and to reconstruct the location and size of corrosion-like defect, over a range of size parameters. The study is carried out using transverse electric and transverse magnetic polarized fields. To understand the effect of coating on backscattered fields, parametric studies are conducted using numerical data. A range for size parameter \(2.0\le ka\le 4\) was found to produce the highest contrast between defect free pipe and coated metallic pipes with defects in the deep shadow region. The experiments are carried out using vector network analyzer in an anechoic chamber. The inversion results obtained using measured data were found be in good agreement with inversion results obtained using synthetic data. Estimated extent of corrosion in deep shadow region of a coated metallic pipe was found to be within 9 % of actual extent of corrosion.     

Comparing risk of failure models in water supply networks using ROC curves

The problem of predicting the failure of water mains has been considered from different perspectives and using several methodologies in engineering literature. Nowadays, it is important to be able to accurately calculate the failure probabilities of pipes over time, since water company profits and service quality for citizens depend on pipe survival; forecasting pipe failures could have important economic and social implications. Quantitative tools (such as managerial or statistical indicators and reliable databases) are required in order to assess the current and future state of networks. Companies managing these networks are trying to establish models for evaluating the risk of failure in order to develop a proactive approach to the renewal process, instead of using traditional reactive pipe substitution schemes.The main objective of this paper is to compare models for evaluating the risk of failure in water supply networks. Using real data from a water supply company, this study has identified which network characteristics affect the risk of failure and which models better fit data to predict service breakdown.The comparison using the receiver operating characteristics (ROC) graph leads us to the conclusion that the best model is a generalized linear model. Also, we propose a procedure that can be applied to a pipe failure database, allowing the most appropriate decision rule to be chosen.     

Weibull analysis, extrapolations and implications for condition assessment of cast iron water mains

The applicability of Weibull statistics to the condition assessment of cast iron water distribution pipes has been considered. The effect of Weibull modulus, characteristic strength, sample size and mode of loading (tension or flexure) on the strength of cast iron water distribution pipes is investigated. The strength distribution of cast iron samples cut from sections of five different water distribution pipes recovered from the ground have been characterized. Strengths have been measured in flexure, at two different temperatures (ambient and 0 °C), and in tension at ambient temperature using two different sample sizes. It is shown that characteristic strength values in flexure decrease with increasing size of graphite flake and that there is no significant difference between the results at the two temperatures investigated. For samples of the same volume tested in tension and flexure, the reduced strength measured in tension is consistent with Weibull predictions. However, the strength of large samples tested in tension was not significantly different from the small samples, perhaps because the samples were of the same thickness and conventional Weibull scaling is not applicable. Finally, using a method which treats a large pipe as an assembly of small samples, the strength distributions from the small samples tested in tension are used to make a prediction of the strengths of 1 m span sections of pipe loaded in three‐point bending, which were reported in previous work. The predicted pipe strengths are close to the lower end of the measured pipe strength distribution. Overall, this work suggests that Weibull analysis is a useful tool to examine the strength distribution of removed from cast iron water pipes and so has the potential to contribute in the assessment of asset condition.