Effects of rainfall patterns on highway runoff pollution and its control

The magnitude of pollution from highway runoff is highly dependent on rainfall patterns. To demonstrate the effects of rainfall on the characteristics of highway pollution and its control, runoff from two sections of a major highway in Taiwan was monitored, representing respectively the uncontrolled runoff and the runoff treated using a swale system. Event mean concentrations (EMCs) of suspended solids, chemical oxygen demand, total nitrogen, total phosphates, iron, copper and zinc were calculated from monitored data. Annuals loads were also obtained from long‐term simulations using the US Environmental Protection Agency Stormwater Management Model. Results indicated that, despite high traffic volumes, both EMCs and annual loads from the studied highway were low compared with those found in literatures. The lower potentials of runoff pollution were attributed to a pattern of infrequent but intense rainfalls of the study area. The specific rainfall pattern also caused the swale system to be less effective in controlling nitrogen and phosphorus because of significant erosion.     

Characterisation of diffuse pollutions from forested watersheds in Japan during storm events - its association with rainfall and watershed features

Forest areas have been identified as important sources of nonpoint pollution in Japan. The managers must estimate stormwater quality and quantities from forested watersheds to develop effective management strategies. Therefore, stormwater runoff loads and concentrations of 10 constituents (total suspended solids, dissolved organic carbon, PO(4)-P, dissolved total phosphorus, total phosphorus, NH(4)-N, NO(2)-N, NO(3)-N, dissolved total nitrogen, and total nitrogen) for 72 events across five regions (Aichi, Kochi, Mie, Nagano, and Tokyo) were characterised. Most loads were significantly and positively correlated with stormwater variables (total event rainfall, event duration, and rainfall intensity), but most discharge-weighted event concentrations (DWECs) showed negative correlations with rainfall intensity. Mean water quality concentration during baseflow was correlated significantly with storm concentrations (r=0.41-0.77). Although all pollutant load equations showed high coefficients of determination (R(2)=0.55-0.80), no models predicted well pollutant concentrations, except those for the three N constituents (R(2)=0.59-0.67). Linear regressions to estimate stormwater concentrations and loads were greatly improved by regional grouping. The lower prediction capability of the concentration models for Mie, compared with the other four regions, indicated that other watershed or storm characteristics should be included in the prediction models. Significant differences among regions were found more frequently in concentrations than in loads for all constituents. Since baseflow conditions implied available pollutant sources for stormwater, the similar spatial characteristics of pollutant concentrations between baseflow and stormflow conditions were an important control for stormwater quality.     

Parameter uncertainty analysis of non-point source pollution from different land use types

Land use type is one of the most important factors that affect the uncertainty in non-point source (NPS) pollution simulation. In this study, seventeen sensitive parameters were screened from the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model for parameter uncertainty analysis for different land use types in the Daning River Watershed of the Three Gorges Reservoir area, China. First-Order Error Analysis (FOEA) method was adopted to analyze the effect of parameter uncertainty on model outputs under three types of land use, namely, plantation, forest and grassland. The model outputs selected in this study consisted of runoff, sediment yield, organic nitrogen (N), and total phosphorus (TP). The results indicated that the uncertainty conferred by the parameters differed among the three land use types. In forest and grassland, the parameter uncertainty in NPS pollution was primarily associated with runoff processes, but in plantation, the main uncertain parameters were related to runoff process and soil properties. Taken together, the study suggested that adjusting the structure of land use and controlling fertilizer use are helpful methods to control the NPS pollution in the Daning River Watershed.     

Improved calibration of a rainfall‐pollutant‐runoff model using turbidity and electrical conductivity as surrogate parameters for total nitrogen

To address data scarcity for calibration of rainfall‐pollutant‐runoff (RPR) models, we evaluated the suitability of nutrient levels estimated based on surrogate parameters as a novel source of data, using runoff of total nitrogen (TN) in the Tegiru basin as a case study. A linear regression equation was developed for estimating TN based on turbidity and electrical conductivity; this expression was then used to generate TN data (n = 113) for calibration of a catchment‐specific RPR model. Using solely the estimated TN concentrations for calibration, the model accurately predicted TN concentrations (21% error based on measured TN, n = 13) and revealed runoff trends during periods in which TN measurements were lacking. Finally, we utilised this model to show that TN runoff was highest during months with frequent and high intensity rainfall. In summary, this study demonstrates the applicability of surrogate parameters to extend data on difficult‐to‐monitor nutrient loads for model calibration.     

Phosphorus dynamics observed through increasing scales in a nested headwater-to-river channel study

The hypothesis that the dynamic patterns of phosphorus (P) transport at plot scale are similar to the patterns that could be observed quasi-simultaneously (i.e., approximately at the same time) at a river basin scale, in terms of inputs and dilution of P, across a range of rainfall and runoff conditions, was tested. From this information, it was hoped to be able to make some simple inferences about the connectivity or mass flux of P transport between the different scales of observation. An intensive study using 30-m2 plots, 1-ha plots and nested river channel sites ranging in scale from 20 ha up to a maximum of 834 km2 in the River Taw basin, South West England, UK, was conducted with three campaigns under differing flow conditions: (1) a zero rainfall base flow period, (2) a 10-mm rainfall residual flow period, and (3) a 42-mm rainfall storm flow period. The mass flux of total P ranged from 49 kg during base flow to 4 tonnes during the storm period at the largest 834 km2 scale. During base flow conditions, total phosphorus (TP) concentrations from diffuse sources were low (26 microg L-1 in the upper catchment) and reactive P forms dominated the fractions filtered <0.45 microm. During storm flow, concentrations of TP increased at all scales within the drainage basin, to a maximum of 500 microg L-1 and were sufficient to override the effect of any point source inputs of P. Unreactive (i.e., mostly 'organic') forms of P dominated the fractions that were >0.45 microm during residual flows and storm flows. Spatially normalised discharge apparently decreased with increasing scale, most notably during storm flow conditions and this implies that there is some storage of water through the catchment and in part may reflect varying velocities of water in different pathways. Most attenuation and dilution of P appeared to occur at larger scales, whilst the hydrological connectivity between source areas and receiving waters was greatest at smaller scales (<20 ha), and during the highest flows. The importance of diffuse agricultural sources in contributing to P export through the basin was dominated by dynamic temporal changes in hydrological activity, with a 'piston pushing' effect of particulate associated P through the basin as it wets up in response to rainfall input. We concluded that the processes of P transfer are different at different scales. However, some uncertainties of spatial heterogeneity around the catchment underlie the difficulties in dealing with scale and thus more data and studies of this nature are required.     

Climate change impacts on streamflow and non‐point source pollutant loads in the 3S Rivers of the Mekong Basin

Changes in non‐point source (NPS) pollutants are of particular concern in developing countries. This study investigated the responses of streamflow and NPS pollutant loads to climate change in the 3S River Basin, a trans‐boundary basin of the Mekong River, using Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Firstly, the SWAT model in simulations of streamflow and NPS pollutant loads was calibrated and validated against observed data to prove the reliability of the simulation results. Then, the calibrated SWAT model was used to simulate changes in streamflow and NPS pollutants under the impact of climate change. The simulation results indicated that the streamflow and NPS pollutant loads are predicted to increase in the future. Moreover, water shortage in the dry season and soil degradation in the wet season are emphasized to occur in the future.     

Spatial analysis of water quality trends in the Han River basin, South Korea

Spatial patterns of water quality trends for 118 sites in the Han River basin of South Korea were examined for eight parameters-temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), suspended sediment (SS), total phosphorus (TP), and total nitrogen (TN). A non-parametric seasonal Mann-Kendall's test determined the significance of trends for each parameter for each site between 1993 and 2002. There are no significant trends in temperature, but TN concentrations increased for the majority of the monitoring stations. DO, BOD, COD, pH, SS, and TP show increasing or decreasing trends with approximately half of the stations exhibiting no trends. Urban land cover is positively associated with increases in water pollution and included as an important explanatory variable for the variations in all water quality parameters except pH. Topography and soil factors further explain the spatial variations in pH, COD, BOD, and SS. BOD, COD, SS, and TP variations are consistently better explained by 100m buffer scale analysis, but DO are better explained by the whole basin scale analysis. Local water quality management or geology could further explain some variations of water quality. Non-point-source pollution exhibits strong positive spatial autocorrelation as measured by Moran's I, indicating that the incorporation of spatial dimensions into water quality assessment enhances our understanding of spatial patterns of water quality. The spatial regression models, compared to ordinary least square (OLS) models, always better explain the variations in water quality. This study suggests that spatial analysis of watershed data at different scales should be a vital part of identifying the fundamental spatio-temporal distribution of water quality.     

Developing a new method for spatial assessment of drought vulnerability (case study: Zayandeh‐Rood river basin in Iran)

The paper presents an approach to spatially representative depiction for assessing the vulnerability of central Iran's Zayandeh‐Rood river basin to drought using multiple indicators. Drought conditions prevailed in the study basin from 2002 to 2007, with an annual rainfall deficiency of 45 to 55%. Multi‐attribute decision making (MADM) methods develop a framework to evaluate the relative priorities of drought assessment based on a set of preferences, criteria and indicators. The proposed MADM process uses well‐known techniques for product weights analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and order preference (TOPSIS). These indicators include the Standard Precipitation Index (SPI), water demand, the Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and the Groundwater Balance and Surface Water Supply Index (SWSI). Indicators' spatial information was categorised in layers prepared in the spatial domain using a geographic information system (GIS). The alternatives were ranked and presented using TOPSIS. Results show that the proposed method was highly effective in representing assessments of drought vulnerability.     

Herbicide distribution and transport in subsurface environment of a tomato field in the Three Gorges Reservoir area,China

The presence of pesticides via non-point source (NPS) pollution might be a threat to human health and aquatic ecosystems. This study aims to characterize quantitatively the distribution and transport of Linuron in a coupled canopy-soil system by using modelling techniques, viz. an integrated pesticide transport modelling system to simulate three-phase pesticide fate and transport in a tomato field of the Three Gorges Reservoir area. Results indicate that spatio-temporal distributions of Linuron levels in surface soil are dominated by its properties, rainfall, irrigation and its applications. The occurrence and distribution of Linuron in subsurface and deep soil are closely related to the cumulative and delayed effects. Runoff and erosion also play important roles in the environmental transport and fate of Linuron. The results may be useful for taking effective pesticide management measures to control pesticide NPS pollution at watershed scales.     

Estimation of monthly diffuse nutrient loads for a watershed in Turkey

Diffuse pollution has a complex nature depending on various land‐use activities like agriculture, livestock breeding and forestry. In this study, an alternative methodology is applied for decreasing the spatial uncertainty of diffuse nutrient load estimations. It is applied in the Melen Watershed, Turkey, which is an important watershed from where additional water will be supplied for the megacity Istanbul via interbasin water transfer. Monthly diffuse nutrient loads were estimated for each subwatershed by utilizing remote sensing (RS) and geographical information systems (GIS). Estimated nutrient loads were considerably different in various months due to the temporally irregular fertilizer application and meteorological conditions. Temporal differences were also predicted in the spatial distribution of the nutrient loads. The methodology is applicable in watershed protection studies, especially where necessary etudes should be conducted in the short term and with limited data. Such efforts in identifying and determining the diffuse loads are important for sustainable management of the watershed.     

GIS的嘉陵江流域吸附态氮磷污染负荷研究

以美国通用土壤流失方程为基础,根据研究流域的特征和已有的研究成果确定方程中的因子算式,在地理信息系统GIS支持下,估算了各单元的土壤流失量,应用吸附态非点源污染负荷模型,对嘉陵江流域吸附态氮磷污染负荷进行了数值模拟与定量分析。结果表明:嘉陵江流域近年平均输沙模数为161.94 t/(km2.a),北碚出口吸附态氮磷污染负荷分别为29620.8 t/a和1391.96 t/a,吸附态氮磷流失较严重的地区主要分布在白龙江和西汉水流域,各土地利用类型吸附态氮磷流失模数大小顺序依次为:荒地>灌木>草地>农田>城镇>林地。     

Spatial variability of the characteristics of combined wet weather pollutant loads in Paris

An on-site observatory of urban pollutant loads in combined sewers has been created in Paris in order to investigate wet weather pollutant loads at different spatial scales. This observatory is composed of six urban catchments, covering areas from 41 to 2581ha. For a wide range of parameters including suspended solids (SS), volatile suspended solids (VSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), total organic carbon (TOC), total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), metals (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn), aliphatic hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (AHs and PAHs), this article serves to evaluate the potential scale effect on wet weather flow (WWF) quality. Although the extensive data set compiled herein has emphasized the high variability in WWF quality from one rain event to the next, no scale effect could be observed for a given rain event on pollutant concentrations, distributions between dissolved and particulate phases, pollutant contents and loads. Such results are of prime importance since they suggest (i) no spatial scale influence on WWF quality for the considered catchments and (ii) similar dominant sources and transfer processes at the various spatial scales.     

A preliminary pressure–impact analysis applied in the Pinios river basin (Thessaly, Central Greece)

Greece has not yet undertaken one of the first and most important tasks required by the Water Framework Directive (WFD: the integrated review of the impact of human activity on the status of surface waters for each river basin – the IMPRESS analysis. Owing to the lack of a national methodology, a preliminary analysis was carried out for the Pinios river basin, applying a combination of different methodologies refined to suit the particularities of the Greek freshwater environment and to accommodate the limited availability of data. Pressures caused by the main pollution sources, point and nonpoint, were quantified in terms of pollution loads with the use of emission factors. The existing limited biological and physicochemical monitoring data were used to assess impacts. Additionally, we identified pressures caused by alterations from land-use data; we carried out a River Habitat Survey (RHS) and estimated the hydromorphological impacts through the calculation of a Habitat Modification Score (HMS). Our results suggest that the probability of the Pinios river basin failing to achieve good ecological quality by 2015 due to pollution is high, and due to hydromorphological pressures is moderate.     

Long-term changes in pollutant load outflows and purification function in a paddy field watershed using a circular irrigation system

A long-term investigation on the water quality and hydrology was carried out for 8 years and 7 months (from October 1991 to April 2000) in a paddy field watershed using a circular irrigation system. The annual amount of rainfall ranged from 1270 to 2226 mm and it was found that the amount of irrigation water tended to decrease as rainfall increased. Phosphorus and chemical oxygen demand (COD) concentrations tended to decrease with the river flowing down, whereas nitrogen concentrations showed no significant difference. The annual outflow loads (sum of the net-outflow load during irrigation periods and the outflow load during non-irrigation periods) of total nitrogen (T-N), total phosphorus (T-P), and COD ranged from 13.6 to 75.3 kg ha(-1)yr(-1), -3.55 to 2.21 kg ha(-1)yr(-1), and -24.7 to 48.5 kg ha(-1)yr(-1), respectively. The negative values for T-P and COD loads indicated that the study watershed performed a purification function. The change in annual pollutant loads was primarily attributed to the amount of hydrological water volumes (the annual amount of rainfall or that of rainfall plus irrigation water) for T-N and COD loads and partially for T-P load. In addition, the purification function was related to the hydraulic retention time, and the study watershed allows sufficient retention for pollutant purification for phosphorus and COD contents and partially for nitrogen content.     

Nutrient fluxes in the Po basin.

The nutrient load of the river Po needs to be reduced in order to bring the eutrophication problems in the Northwest Adriatic Sea under lasting control. In this paper we analyse the contribution of the different pollution sources to the nitrogen and phosphorus loads of the river Po (source apportionment). We also estimate the effects of measures that aim to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus pollution in the Po basin (scenario analyses). Using a model (PolFlow) that was previously applied to the Rhine and Elbe basins, we found that more than half of the nitrogen and phosphorus loads in the river Po originates from diffuse sources. The results of the scenario analyses indicate that the measures imposed by the EU Nitrates Directive and the EU Wastewater Treatment Directive may not be stringent enough to achieve a large reduction in the N and P loads in the river Po.     

Geo-referenced modeling of zinc concentrations in the Ruhr river basin (Germany) using the model GREAT-ER

Zinc enters surface waters from a variety of different emission sources. The geo-referenced model GREAT-ER (Geo-referenced Regional Exposure Assessment Tool for European Rivers) was applied to simulate spatially resolved zinc concentrations in the Ruhr river basin. The model links geo-referenced emissions (loads) to concentrations at local and regional scales and allows for evaluating the relative importance of emission sources. For each emission from point sources (household, industry, urban runoff) and non-point sources (agriculture, natural background), zinc loads were independently estimated using appropriate reference parameters (number of inhabitants, surface area drained, agricultural area, zinc ore regions). For point emissions from industry and mine drainage loads were taken directly from available data compilations. Simulated total zinc concentrations agree well with monitoring data. The strength of the modeling tool became evident from the unequivocal link that could be established between observed surface water concentrations and the large zinc input from geogenic sources and abandoned mines. These emission sources are regional characteristics of the Ruhr river basin and due to the fact that some regions are relatively rich in zinc ore, which was extracted over a long period of time. Although most of these emissions occur in the upper part of the catchment, they contribute to approximately one-third to the zinc load at the confluence with the Rhine River. Urban emissions from household, traffic (road) and buildings (roof) were shown to be responsible for approximately half of the concentration in the Ruhr at the confluence with the Rhine River.     

Agriculture and groundwater nitrate contamination in the Seine basin. The STICS-MODCOU modelling chain

A software package is presented here to predict the fate of nitrogen fertilizers and the transport of nitrate from the rooting zone of agricultural areas to surface water and groundwater in the Seine basin, taking into account the long residence times of water and nitrate in the unsaturated and aquifer systems. Information on pedological characteristics, land use and farming practices is used to determine the spatial units to be considered. These data are converted into input data for the crop model STICS which simulates the water and nitrogen balances in the soil-plant system with a daily time-step. A spatial application of STICS has been derived at the catchment scale which computes the water and nitrate fluxes at the bottom of the rooting zone. These fluxes are integrated into a surface and groundwater coupled model MODCOU which calculates the daily water balance in the hydrological system, the flow in the rivers and the piezometric variations in the aquifers, using standard climatic data (rainfall, PET). The transport of nitrate and the evolution of nitrate contamination in groundwater and to rivers is computed by the model NEWSAM. This modelling chain is a valuable tool to predict the evolution of crop productivity and nitrate contamination according to various scenarios modifying farming practices and/or climatic changes. Data for the period 1970-2000 are used to simulate the past evolution of nitrogen contamination. The method has been validated using available data bases of nitrate concentrations in the three main aquifers of the Paris basin (Oligocene, Eocene and chalk). The approach has then been used to predict the future evolution of nitrogen contamination up to 2015. A statistical approach allowed estimating the probability of transgression of different concentration thresholds in various areas in the basin. The model is also used to evaluate the cost of the damage resulting of the treatment of drinking water at the scale of a groundwater management unit in the Seine river basin.     

Estimating nutrient releases from agriculture in China: An extended substance flow analysis framework and a modeling tool

Agriculture related pollution has attracted the attention of policy makers as well as scientists in China as its contribution to water impairment has increased, and quantitative information at the national and regional levels is being sought to support decision making. However, traditional approaches are either time-consuming, expensive (e.g. national surveys) or oversimplified and crude (e.g. coefficient methods). Therefore, this study proposed an extended substance flow analysis (SFA) framework to estimate nutrient releases from agricultural and rural activities in China by depicting the nutrient flows in Chinese agro-ecosystems. The six-step process proposed herein includes: (a) system definition; (b) model development; (c) database development; (d) model validation; (e) results interpretation; and (f) uncertainty analysis. The developed Eubolism (Elementary Unit based nutrient Balance mOdeLIng in agro-ecoSysteM) model combined a nutrient balance module with an emission inventory module to quantify the nutrient flows in the agro-ecosystem. The model was validated and then applied to estimate the total agricultural nutrient loads, identify the contribution of different agricultural and rural activities and different land use types to the total loads, and analyze the spatial pattern of agricultural nutrient emissions in China. These results could provide an entire picture of agricultural pollution at the national level and be used to support policy making. Furthermore, uncertainties associated with the structure of the elementary units, spatial resolution, and inputs/parameters were also analyzed to evaluate the robustness of the model results.     

Uncertainty analysis of parameters in non‐point source pollution simulation: case study of the application of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool model to Yitong River watershed in northeast China

Uncertainty analysis of the model parameters in non‐point source pollution (NPSP) simulation is important because of its great effects on predictions and decision‐making. Understanding the main parameters that effect the uncertainty of NPSP is necessary to provide the basis for formulating control measures. In this study, two methods were applied to conduct parameter uncertainty analysis for Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Sobol’ method was used to screen out the model parameters with great effects on the runoff, sediment, total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP). The results obtained by sensitivity analysis were used subsequent model calibration and further uncertainty analysis. Monte Carlo (MC) method was employed to analyse the effects of parameter uncertainty on the model outputs. However, such problems are time‐consuming because the MC method required to invoke simulation model thousands of times. To address this challenge, a kriging surrogate model was developed to improve the overall calculation efficiency. The results obtained by sensitivity analysis showed that curve number value (CN2), soil evaporation compensation factor (ESCO), universal soil loss equation support practice factor (USLE_P) and initial organic nitrogen concentration in soil layer (SOL_ORGN) had significant effects on the SWAT outputs. The uncertainty analysis results showed that the uncertainty of runoff is the lowest, followed by TP and TN, and the uncertainty of sediment was the greatest. The kriging surrogate model has the ability to solve this time‐consuming problem rapidly with a high degree of accuracy, and thus it is very robust.     

Changing climate and endangered high mountain ecosystems in Colombia

High mountain ecosystems are among the most sensitive environments to changes in climatic conditions occurring on global, regional and local scales. The article describes the changing conditions observed over recent years in the high mountain basin of the Claro River, on the west flank of the Colombian Andean Central mountain range. Local ground truth data gathered at 4150 m, regional data available at nearby weather stations, and satellite info were used to analyze changes in the mean and the variance, and significant trends in climatic time series. Records included minimum, mean and maximum temperatures, relative humidity, rainfall, sunshine, and cloud characteristics. In high levels, minimum and maximum temperatures during the coldest days increased at a rate of about 0.6 degrees C/decade, whereas maximum temperatures during the warmest days increased at a rate of about 1.3 degrees C/decade. Rates of increase in maximum, mean and minimum diurnal temperature range reached 0.6, 0.7, and 0.5 degrees C/decade. Maximum, mean and minimum relative humidity records showed reductions of about 1.8, 3.9 and 6.6%/decade. The total number of sunny days per month increased in almost 2.1 days. The headwaters exhibited no changes in rainfall totals, but evidenced an increased occurrence of unusually heavy rainfall events. Reductions in the amount of all cloud types over the area reached 1.9%/decade. In low levels changes in mean monthly temperatures and monthly rainfall totals exceeded + 0.2 degrees C and - 4% per decade, respectively. These striking changes might have contributed to the retreat of glacier icecaps and to the disappearance of high altitude water bodies, as well as to the occurrence and rapid spread of natural and man-induced forest fires. Significant reductions in water supply, important disruptions of the integrity of high mountain ecosystems, and dramatic losses of biodiversity are now a steady menu of the severe climatic conditions experienced by these fragile tropical environments.