An analytical approach to cutting force prediction in milling of carbon fiber reinforced polymer laminates

ABSTRACT

A prediction model of cutting force for milling multidirectional laminate of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites was developed in this article by using an analytical approach. In the predictive model, an equivalent uniform chip thickness was used in the case of orthogonal plane cutting, and the average specific cutting energy was taken as an empirical function of equivalent chip thickness and fiber orientation angle. The parameters in the model were determined by the experimental data. Then, the analytical model of cutting force prediction was validated by the experimental data of multidirectional CFRP laminates, which shows the good reliability of the model established. Furthermore, the cutting force component of flank contact force was correlated with the surface roughness of workpiece and the flank wear of tool in milling UD-CFRP composites. It was found that surface quality as well as flank wear has a co-incident varying trend with the flank contact force, as confirmed by the observations of the machined surfaces and tool wear at different fiber orientations. So, it can be known that low flank contact force be required to reduce surface damage and flank wear.     

Effects of geometric structure of twist drill bits and cutting condition on tool life in drilling 42CrMo ultrahigh-strength steel

To investigate the influence of the geometric structure of coated cemented carbide twist drills on the drill tool life, drilling experiments of 42CrMo steel were carried out at various cutting parameters. The geometric structure parameters of the specially manufactured drill bits were designed by the multifactor orthogonal experiment method. The effects of cutting edge preparation, drill point geometry, and flute geometry on the tool wear were investigated by the range analysis and variance analysis. And their effects on chip pattern were also studied. Then the influence of cutting parameters on the tool life was investigated. Based on these investigations and extending the tool life, the optimized geometric structure was the honed cutting edge with a radius of 0.06 mm and conventional conical flank, and the corresponding cutting parameters were 80 m/min and 0.18 mm/rev. At last, the tool wear characteristics were discussed and the main wear mechanisms were abrasive wear, adhesive wear, coating exfoliation, and tipping.     

PCBN刀具切削高温合金锯齿形切屑形成机理

高温合金被广泛的应用于航空航天工业中,它是一种典型的难加工材料,切削过程刀具磨损严重。PCBN刀具作为一种超硬刀具材料在加工高温合金方面具有较大潜能,但由于PCBN刀具没有断屑槽,故断屑困难。因此研究切削参数以及刀具磨损对切屑形成的影响规律对推进PCBN刀具的应用具有重要的意义。通过试验研究切削参数和刀具磨损对切削力、切屑宏观状态和切屑微观参数(切屑剪切角、切屑厚度、齿高和齿间角)的影响规律。试验结果表明:当切削速度为97 m/min,切削深度为0.1 mm,进给量为0.14 mm/r时,切屑的宏观状态最佳。并根据试验结果,确定了绝热剪切带的位置和两个切屑锯齿形成的关系,进而建立了PCBN刀具切削高温合金GH4169的锯齿形切屑的形成机理模型:当刀具运动到某一点开始出现绝热剪切带,继续运动到下一点,形成一个锯齿,继续运动将出现下一个剪切失稳。     

Selection of the Machining Inclination Angle in High-Speed Ball End Milling

High-speed machining is a key issue for current die and mould manufacturing. Though this technology has great potential for high productivity, tool wear accelerated by high cutting speeds and hard materials is a barrier. In this work, we attempted to reduce tool wear by controlling the machining inclination angle between the tool and the workpiece. To do this, the range of cutting angles engaged in the cutting using a ball end cutter is obtained from the boundary lines describing machined sculptured surfaces represented by the cutting envelop condition and the geometric relationships of successive tool paths. Then, the chip cross-sectional area and chip length can be obtained from the calculated cutting edge and the rotational engagement angle. The simulation results showed that a machining inclination angle of 15° was good enough from the point view of machineability, and this value was verified by a cutting experiment using high-speed ball end milling.     

钛合金铣削过程刀具前刀面磨损解析建模

钛合金Ti6Al4V作为典型的航空航天难加工材料,在其铣削过程中硬质合金刀具的磨损会降低加工过程稳定性,进而影响加工效率和已加工表面表面质量。刀具前刀面磨损会导致刀具刃口强度降低,并影响切屑的流向和折断情况。针对前刀面磨损机理进行分析并构建了月牙洼磨损深度预测模型。首先运用解析方法构建了前刀面应力场模型,得到切屑在前刀面滑动过程中的刀具前刀面应力分布情况及磨损位置。基于刀-屑接触关系的基础上建立了前刀面温度场模型。然后,基于所得刀具前刀面应力与温度分布,构建综合考虑磨粒磨损、粘结磨损与扩散磨损的铣刀月牙洼磨损深度预测模型,获得月牙洼磨损预测曲线;结合铣刀月牙洼磨损带沿切削刃方向分布的特点,建立了随时间变化的铣刀前刀面磨损体积预测模型。最后通过试验验证了切削宽度对前刀面磨损的影响规律,预测结果与试验测量值具有较好的吻合性。结果表明随着切削宽度的增加,月牙洼磨损深度及前刀面磨损体积都随之增加。研究结果为钛合金铣削用刀具的设计和切削参数的合理选择提供了理论基础。     

Online tool condition monitoring in turning titanium (grade 5) using acoustic emission: modeling

This paper presents an online prediction of tool wear using acoustic emission (AE) in turning titanium (grade 5) with PVD-coated carbide tools. In the present work, the root mean square value of AE at the chip–tool contact was used to detect the progression of flank wear in carbide tools. In particular, the effect of cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut on tool wear has been investigated. The flank surface of the cutting tools used for machining tests was analyzed using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy technique to determine the nature of wear. A mathematical model for the prediction of AE signal was developed using process parameters such as speed, feed, and depth of cut along with the progressive flank wear. A confirmation test was also conducted in order to verify the correctness of the model. Experimental results have shown that the AE signal in turning titanium alloy can be predicted with a reasonable accuracy within the range of process parameters considered in this study.     

Intelligent monitoring and prediction of tool wear in CNC turning by utilizing wavelet transform

In order to realize an intelligent CNC machine, this research proposed the in-process tool wear monitoring system regardless of the chip formation in CNC turning by utilizing the wavelet transform. The in-process prediction model of tool wear is developed during the CNC turning process. The relations of the cutting speed, the feed rate, the depth of cut, the decomposed cutting forces, and the tool wear are investigated. The Daubechies wavelet transform is used to differentiate the tool wear signals from the noise and broken chip signals. The decomposed cutting force ratio is utilized to eliminate the effects of cutting conditions by taking ratio of the average variances of the decomposed feed force to that of decomposed main force on the fifth level of wavelet transform. The tool wear prediction model consists of the decomposed cutting force ratio, the cutting speed, the depth of cut, and the feed rate, which is developed based on the exponential function. The new cutting tests are performed to ensure the reliability of the tool wear prediction model. The experimental results showed that as the cutting speed, the feed rate, and the depth of cut increase, the main cutting force also increases which affects in the escalating amount of tool wear. It has been proved that the proposed system can be used to separate the chip formation signals and predict the tool wear by utilizing wavelet transform even though the cutting conditions are changed.     

Performance prediction of high-pressure coolant assisted turning of Ti-6Al-4V

The present study focuses on the development of predictive models of average surface roughness, chip-tool interface temperature, chip reduction coefficient, and average tool flank wear in turning of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. The cutting speed, feed rate, cutting conditions (dry and high-pressure coolant), and turning forces (cutting force and feed force) were the input variables in modeling the first three quality parameters, while in modeling tool wear, the machining time was the only variable. Notably, the machining environment influences the machining performance; yet, very few models exist wherein this variable was considered as input. Herein, soft computing-based modeling techniques such as artificial neural network (ANN) and support vector machines (SVM) were explored for roughness, temperature, and chip coefficient. The prediction capability of the formulated models was compared based on the lowest mean absolute percentage error. For surface roughness and cutting temperature, the ANN and, for chip reduction coefficient, the SVM revealed the lowest error, hence recommended. In addition, empirical models were constructed by using the experimental data of tool wear. The adequacy and good fit of tool wear models were justified by a coefficient of determination value greater than 0.99.     

模具钢铣削中刀具磨损的试验研究

以面铣刀刀片磨损为研究对象,结合类神经网络系统建构高速数控铣削加工的预测模型。以加工参数为模型输入条件,刀腹磨耗为输出条件。采用多因素试验方法,选择切削速度、进给速度、切削深度三个试验参数,利用直交表式的试验计划法设计试验点。依照试验点铣削工件后再测量刀具加工后的刀腹磨耗量,进而求得倒传递网络所需的36组训练范例与11组验证数据。刀腹磨耗预测模式是利用类神经网络中的倒传递网络原理,以田口法求得倒传递网络参数的最优值。试验结果显示,刀腹磨耗随着切削速度、进给速度、切削深度增加而上升。铣削模具钢后,刀具磨耗预测值的平均误差为4.72%,最大误差为11.43%,最小误差为0.31%。整体而言,类神经网络对于铣削加工可进行有效预测。     

Cutting forces, chip formation, and tool wear in high-speed face milling of AISI H13 steel with CBN tools

High-speed face milling experiments of AISI H13 steel (46–47 HRC) with cubic boron nitride (CBN) tools were conducted in order to identify the characteristics of cutting forces, chip formation, and tool wear in a wide range of cutting speed (200–1,200 m/min). The velocity effects are focused on in the present study. It was found that, at the cutting speed of 800 m/min, which can be considered as a critical value, relatively low mechanical load, relatively low degree of chip segmentation, and relatively long tool life can be obtained at the same time. Both the cutting forces and the degree of chip segmentation firstly decrease and then increase with the cutting speed, while the tool life exhibits the opposite trend. By means of analyzing the wear mechanisms of tools tested under different cutting speeds, it was found that, as the cutting speed increases, the influences of fracture and chipping resulting from mechanical load on tool wear were reduced, while the influences of adhesion, oxidation, and thermal crack accelerated by high cutting temperature became greater. There exist obvious correlations among cutting forces, chip formation, and tool wear.     

Investigation of dry machining with embedded heat pipe cooling by finite element analysis and experiments

This paper investigates the performance of a cutting tool embedded with a heat pipe on reducing cutting temperature and wear in machining. The temperature of a tool plays an important role in thermal distortion and the machined part’s dimensional accuracy, as well as the tool life in machining. A new embedded heat pipe technology has been developed to effectively remove the heat generated at the tool–chip interface in machining, thereby, reducing tool wear and prolonging tool life. In particular, the technique can effectively minimize pollution and contamination of the environment caused by cutting fluids, and the health problems of skin exposure and particulate inhalation in manufacturing. The ANSYS finite element analysis simulations show that the temperature near the cutting edge drops significantly with an embedded heat pipe during machining. Temperature measurements at several locations on the cutting tool insert agree with the simulation results both with and without the heat pipe. Experiments were carried out to characterize the temperature distributions when performing turning experiments using a cutting tool installed with an embedded heat pipe. The performance of the heat pipe on reducing the cutting tool temperature was further supported by the observations of cutting tool material color, chip color, and the chip radius of curvature.     

渐变强化刃刀具硬切削过程切屑流动和刀具磨损研究

刃口倒棱结构在提升切削刃强度的同时也进一步增大了切削过程中的热力载荷,进而影响着硬切削加工的切屑流动、刀具磨损和加工表面质量。利用高速摄影方法,对比分析了渐变强化刃和定值倒棱两种结构PCBN刀具的切屑流动特性,发现渐变强化刃结构具有协调切屑流动的作用,能有效地解决硬切削过程切屑积聚问题。结合硬切削试验,开展了渐变强化刃刀具磨损特性研究,结果表明：与定值倒棱刀具相对集中的磨损带不同,渐变强化刃刀具磨损区域则更为狭长,后刀面磨损带呈现为长三角形,具备了更为优异的刃口保持性和耐用度,当进入到刃形改变阶段,其磨损机制由磨粒磨损机制逐渐变化为磨粒、氧化和扩散等多种机制的混合形式。渐变强化刃结构刀具在改善切屑流动和提升刀具耐用度方面均体现出了明显的优势,具备了良好的推广应用前景。     

MODELING THE PHYSICS OF METAL CUTTING IN HIGH-SPEED MACHINING

ABSTRACT

Physical modeling of metal cutting was carried out to provide an understanding and prediction of machining process details. The models are based on finite element analysis (FEA), using a Lagrangian formulation with explicit dynamics. Requirements for material constitutive models are discussed in the context of high-speed machining. Model results address metal cutting characteristics such as segmented chip formation, dynamic cutting forces, unconstrained plastic flow of material during chip formation, and thermomechanical environments of the work-piece and the cutting tool. Examples are presented for aerospace aluminum and titanium alloys. The results are suited for analysis of key process issues of cutting tool performance, including tool geometry, tool sharpness, workpiece material buildup, and tool wear.     

Ti-6Al-4V合金激光辅助铣削的刀具磨损特性

对激光辅助铣削钛合金Ti-6Al-4V进行了实验研究,分析了切削力、切屑形貌和刀具的磨损特性。结果表明,与普通铣削相比,激光辅助铣削条件下,刀具切向的切削力明显减小,刀具径向的切削力略有增大;随着激光功率的增大,钛合金切屑呈现出从锯齿形向连续形过渡的特征,不再具有明显的绝热剪切带;与普通铣削时刀具崩刃的损伤不同,激光辅助铣削时刀具的磨损主要表现为后刀面磨损;激光辅助铣削可以减小后刀面的最大磨损量,但并不能改善后刀面平均磨损量。激光辅助铣削时,刀具寿命得到了延长,当后刀面的平均磨损量在0.15~0.20mm之间时,可以降低刀具的磨损速度,从而延长刀具的使用寿命,但激光辅助铣削并不能降低刀具的初期磨损速度。     

Cutting performance of nano-crystalline diamond (NCD) coating in micro-milling of Ti6Al4V alloy

Hard coatings are an important factor affecting the cutting performance of tools. In particular, they directly affect tool life, cutting forces, surface quality and burr formation in the micro-milling process. In this study, the performance of nano-crystalline diamond (NCD) coated tools was evaluated by comparing it with TiN-coated, AlCrN-coated and uncoated carbide tools in micro-milling of Ti₆Al₄V alloy. A series of micro-milling tests was carried out to determine the effects of coating type and machining conditions on tool wear, cutting force, surface roughness and burr size. Flat end-mill tools with two flutes and a diameter of 0.5 mm were used in the micro-milling process. The minimum chip thickness depending on both the cutting force and the surface roughness were determined. The results showed that the minimum chip thickness is about 0.3 times that of the cutter corner radius for Ti₆Al₄V alloy and changes very little with coating type. It was observed from wear tests that the dominant wear mechanism was abrasion. Maximum wear occurred on NCD-coated and uncoated tools. In addition, maximum burr size was obtained in the cutting process with the uncoated tool.     

Tool wear prediction of machining hydrogenated titanium alloy Ti6Al4V with uncoated carbide tools

Tool wear is a problem in the turning of titanium alloy, and it is thus of great importance to understand and quantitatively predict tool wear and tool life. In this paper, a combined tool wear model including abrasive, adhesion, and diffusion wear has been implemented in a commercial finite element (FE) code to predict tool wear. Many key problems in tool wear simulation are presented and discussed such as temperature distribution, the updating of tool geometry, and the smoothing of wear boundary. Subsequently, a finite element method wear prediction model is built, and the results are compared with the experimental value; a good agreement was found. Simulated results showed that cutting force will decrease first and then increase with the increase of the concentration of hydrogen, while tool life varies in the opposite way; therefore, the optimum value of hydrogen content is about 0.3 %. The addition of 0.3 % hydrogen could improve tool life greatly, and its tool life is more than three times that of the as-received material. The hydrogenation process's favorable effect is limited by cutting parameters and cooling conditions. According to the numerical results, an appropriate machining speed and higher feed is the selection criterion for high-efficiency machining of hydrogenated titanium alloy. Furthermore, a reasonable range of cutting parameters is found; the cutting speed is in the range of 50–100 m/min, and the feed is in 0.15–0.25 mm/rev.     

Experimental assessment of textured tools with nano-lubricants in orthogonal cutting of titanium alloy

In this study, we investigated the effects of composite nano-Cu/WS₂ lubricating oil and single-point diamond indentation-textures on improving the cutting performance of YG8 cemented carbide tools, which is crucial for textures tool applications. The aims of the study were to improve wear resistance and reduce chip adhesion at the tool’s rake face in cutting of titanium alloys. Dot textures with different spacings were fabricated on the surface of YG8 cemented carbide tools through the single-point diamond indentation method, and composite nano-Cu/WS₂ lubricating oil was prepared. Orthogonal cutting tests were carried out under dry cutting and minimal quantity lubricated (MQL) conditions. Investigate the effect of different texture spacing on the cutting performance in the light of cutting forces, friction coefficient, the deformed chip thickness, tool adhesions, and chip morphology. The results show that the dot texture effectively improved the lubrication conditions in machining titanium alloys under the MQL conditions. The dot texture is effective at low speed in the dry cutting conditions. With the increase of cutting speed, the friction coefficient of dot texture tool is affected by texture spacing, and the friction coefficient of DT-200 tool is the smallest. In addition, composite nano Cu/WS₂ lubricating oil forms a lubricating film on the wear path by atomizing the lubricating oil and stores it in the dot texture, which enhances the anti-wear performance in the cutting process and reduces the cutting force and friction coefficient at the tool chip interface. By evaluating cutting force, friction coefficient, chip and tool morphology, it is concluded that DT-100 tool is more effective in improving lubrication conditions.

     

An experimental and coupled thermo-mechanical finite element study of heat partition effects in machining

A better understanding of heat partition between the tool and the chip is required in order to produce more realistic finite element (FE) models of machining processes. The objectives are to use these FE models to optimise the cutting process for longer tool life and better surface integrity. In this work, orthogonal cutting of AISI/SAE 4140 steel was performed with tungsten-based cemented carbide cutting inserts at cutting speeds ranging between 100 and 628 m/min with a feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev and a constant depth of cut of 2.5 mm. Cutting temperatures were measured experimentally using an infrared thermal imaging camera. Chip formation was simulated using a fully coupled thermo-mechanical finite element model. The results from cutting tests were used to validate the model in terms of deformed chip thickness and cutting forces. The coupled thermo-mechanical model was then utilised to evaluate the sensitivity of the model output to the specified value of heat partition. The results clearly show that over a wide range of cutting speeds, the accuracy of finite element model output such as chip morphology, tool–chip interface temperature, von Mises stresses and the tool–chip contact length are significantly dependent on the specified value of heat partition.     

A FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF BURR FORMATION IN FACE MILLING OF A CAST ALUMINUM ALLOY

The research discussed in this article focuses on the effects of tool geometry (i.e., rake angle and cutting edge radius) and flank wear upon burr formation in face milling of a cast aluminum alloy. As to tool edge preparation, the use of a tool with variable cutting edge radius was investigated using FEM, and compared for its cutting performance (i.e., burr reduction and tool life) with a conventional tool with uniform cutting edge radius. In order to evaluate 3D face milling through 2D orthogonal cutting simulations, the cross-sections that consist in the cutting speed direction and chip flow direction were selected at different locations along the tool rounded corner. At these cross-sections, the local value of cutting edge radius and their associated tool rake angles as well as the effective uncut chip thickness were determined for 2D cutting simulations. In addition, 3D face milling simulations were conducted to investigate more realistic chip flow and burr generation. Comparisons were made for burrs produced from 3D simulations with a sharp tool, 3D simulations with a worn tool and face milling experiments. Finally, recommendations for cutting tool design are made to reduce burr formation in face milling.     

A comparative study of the tool–chip contact length in turning of two engineering alloys for a wide range of cutting speeds

Tool chip contact length is an important parameter in machining, as it provides an indication of the size of area of interaction between the hot chip and the tool surface and hence the interface heat transfer zone. Heat transfer and thermally activated wear modes usually dominate tool wear in the high speed machining of steels and machining of titanium alloys at most cutting speeds. In this study, existing models for the prediction of tool–chip contact length are reviewed and examined for their suitability in high speed machining of two widely used engineering alloys. Orthogonal turning tests for AISI 1045 steel and Ti6Al4V titanium alloy are conducted for a range of cutting speeds from conventional to high speeds. New contact length models are presented for both materials covering a wide range of cutting speeds. More significantly, these contact length models are appropriate for high speed machining where thermal loads significantly influence process performance. Additionally, the work discusses how the machinability of engineering materials influences the ability to predict contact length.