Dehydrocyclization of Alkanes Over Zeolite-Supported Metal Catalysts: Monofunctional or Bifunctional Route

The direct catalytic conversion of alkanes into aromatics has found potentially important industrial applications. Initially only alkanes with 6 and more carbon atoms in the chain were concerned. Supported platinum catalysts were found active for the aromatization of alkanes; the drawbacks of these catalysts were their deactivation with time on stream and the existence of simultaneous parallel reactions. Much discussion has been published on the aromatization of C₆₊ alkanes. A bifunctional mechanism which involves both the metal and the acid sites of the support and a monofunctional mechanism involving only the metallic sites operate over, respectively, Pt supported on acidic support and Pt supported on nonacidic support. In the present review the mechanisms proposed for the aromatization of alkanes are described. Over monofunctional Pt catalysts two possible mechanisms prevail: 1,6 ring closure on the Pt surface involving primary and secondary C-H bond rupture, followed by dehydrogenation of the cycloalkanes into aromatics (1,5 ring closure to a lesser extent also contributes to aromatic production); or dehydrogenation of the alkanes into olefins, dienes, and trienes followed by thermal ring closure. Zeolites were found most suitable as support for preparing catalysts more active and more selective in the alkane aromatization. In addition catalysts based on noble metals supported on zeolite appeared more resistant against deactivation by coke. In this review the aromatization of hexane, heptane, and octane over Pt-zeolite catalysts is discussed in detail. Comparisons between different zeolite structures and different dehydrogenation sites are given. In particular a critical analysis of the results and interpretation concerning Pt-KL catalysts strongly suggests that the exceptional high selectivity towards aromatization of n-hexane exhibited by Pt-KL could not be explained by only the nest or constraint effect exerted by the channel dimension and morphology, not by only the terminal cracking properties, not by only the partial electron transfer from the zeolite support to the Pt particles, and not by only the Pt particle size. Zeolite structure also affects the aromatic product distribution, in particular when the alkane contains more than 7 carbon atoms. It is shown how Pt on medium-pore zeolites such as In-ZSM-5, silicalites will favor the aromatization of C₈ alkane isomers into ethylbenzene-styrene with respect to other C₈ aromatics. Aromatization of light alkanes, C₂-C₅, requires the increase of the hydrocarbon chain length up to 6 carbon atoms and higher, followed by cyclization reaction. Recently new processes to convert C₂-C₅ alkanes into aromatics have been disclosed, M2-forming from Mobil, Cyclar from BP-UOP, and Aroforming from IFP-Saluted. In general these processes use bifunctional catalysts possessing a dehydrogenating and an acid function. The catalysts consist of a metal ion or metal oxide supported on a microporous acid solid. In this review we analyze the results concerning mainly platinum supported on pentasil-type zeolite. It is shown that althoug Pt has better dehydrogenating properties as compared with gallium and zinc, the efficiency of catalysts based on Pt-ZSM-5 for light alkane aromatization is less because undersirable reactions such as hydrogenolysis and ethene (olefins) hydrogenation occur on the platinum surface, resulting in the production of unreactive alkanes, CH₂, C₂H₆. These drawbacks could be partially suppressed by alloying Pt and by increasing the reaction temperature.     

甲醇制对二甲苯联产低碳烯烃改性ZSM-5催化剂在流化床中的反应性能

在流化床反应器中,对Zn、Si和P改性的ZSM-5催化剂的甲醇制对二甲苯联产低碳烯烃的反应性能进行了研究。采用X射线衍射（XRD）、BET比表面积、扫描电镜（SEM）、NH₃-程序升温脱附（NH₃-TPD）等手段进行表征分析。结果表明,Zn改性使得催化剂酸强度降低,中强酸酸量增加,对二甲苯和低碳烯烃选择性都随之提高;一定量的硅沉积改性在降低催化剂外表面酸量的同时缩小孔口,浸渍适量P能够调变分子筛的酸中心强度和酸量,这都能够提高对二甲苯选择性。在流化床反应器中甲醇制对二甲苯联产低碳烯烃反应结果表明,3Zn-3Si-3P/ZSM-5催化剂在温度425℃、常压、反应时间40min、空速1h^-1的条件下,对二甲苯在二甲苯中的选择性为76.0%,C₂~C₄低碳烯烃选择性为24.4%,特别是芳烃和C₂~C₄低碳烯烃的总选择性高达92.2%。     

全结晶ZSM-5分子筛催化剂研究及工业应用

制备了全结晶ZSM-5分子筛催化剂,采用XRD、SEM、N2物理吸附-脱附及NH3-TPD等对催化剂进行表征,并考察其用于碳四烯烃催化裂解制丙烯(OCC)反应的催化性能。结果表明,制备的全结晶ZSM-5分子筛催化剂比常规成型的催化剂具有更高的结晶度、更大的比表面积、更丰富的孔结构以及更多的活性中心。高空速有利于反应的进行,提高压力对反应不利,升高温度有利于提高产物丙烯收率。在实验室研究的基础上,将全结晶ZSM-5分子筛催化剂用于OCC工业装置,取得良好的应用效果。     

Feedstock recycling of agriculture plastic film wastes by catalytic cracking

Feedstock recycling by catalytic cracking of a real plastic film waste from Almeria greenhouses (Spain) towards valuable hydrocarbon mixtures has been studied over several acid catalysts. The plastic film waste was mostly made up of ambient degraded low-density polyethylene (LDPE) and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymer, the vinyl acetate content being around 4 wt.%. Nanocrystalline HZSM-5 zeolite (crystal size 60 nm) was the only catalyst capable of degrading completely the refuse at 420 °C despite using a very small amount of catalyst (plastic/catalyst mass ratio of 50). However, mesoporous catalysts (Al-SBA-15 and Al-MCM-41), unlike it occurred with virgin LDPE, showed fairly close conversions to that of thermal cracking. Nanocrystalline HZSM-5 zeolite led to 60 wt.% selectivity towards C₁---C₅ hydrocarbons, mostly valuable C₃---C₅ olefins, what would improve the profitability of a future industrial recycling process. The remarkable performance of nanocrystalline HZSM-5 zeolite was ascribed to its high content of strong external acid sites due to its nanometer dimension, which are very active for the cracking of bulky macromolecules. Hence, nanocrystalline HZSM-5 can be regarded as a promising catalyst for a feasible feedstock recycling process by catalytic cracking.     

Pt/TiO2/ZSM-5催化剂的制备及其催化转化正丁烷

采用溶胶-凝胶法和等体积浸渍法,分别对ZSM-5分子筛进行TiO₂改性和Pt负载,获得了具有脱氢-裂解双功能的Pt/TiO₂/ZSM-5催化剂,采用XRD、N₂吸附-脱附、TEM、XPS和NH₃-TPD对样品的晶体结构,孔结构、形貌、活性金属价态和酸性质等进行了表征,并研究了正丁烷在此催化剂上催化转化制备低碳烯烃的反应规律。研究结果表明,TiO₂的引入,一方面使得改性后的ZSM-5分子筛获得了额外的酸性中心,特别是强酸性位含量的增加,有助于促进正丁烷的活化;另一方面Pt与TiO₂之间存在“金属-载体”强相互作用（SMSI）,在H₂还原气氛下,Pt能够促进TiO₂的还原,生成Ti³⁺物种,而Ti³⁺的存在增加了Pt周围的电荷密度,降低了Pt对低碳烯烃（C₂⁼～C₃⁼）的吸附能力,抑制了深度脱氢和生焦反应,从而提高双功能催化剂对烯烃的选择性。当H₂还原温度为450℃时,Pt/10TiO₂/ZSM-5催化剂在625℃下的正丁烷转化率为76.1%,低碳烯烃（C₂⁼～C₃⁼）收率为50.9%,分别比Pt/ZSM-5催化剂提高了16.7%和12.6%。     

焙烧温度对HZSM-5分子筛催化1-丁烯齐聚性能的影响

考察焙烧温度对HZSM-5分子筛催化剂结构及1-丁烯齐聚性能的影响,采用XRD、SEM和NH3-TPD对催化剂进行表征。结果表明,升高焙烧温度,对HZSM-5分子筛催化剂的晶相和晶粒尺寸没有影响,催化剂中弱酸与强酸的酸强度和酸量均随焙烧温度的升高逐渐减弱。在催化剂晶粒尺寸一定条件下,催化剂酸性对催化剂的齐聚性能有较大影响,焙烧温度500℃时,C5+收率和C10+选择性最佳。     

Cracking of n-heptane over Brønsted acid sites and Lewis acid Ga sites in ZSM-5 zeolite

A series of gallium-containing ZSM-5 zeolites prepared by wet impregnation, ion-exchange and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) methods are compared in the cracking of n-heptane. Impregnation results in the dispersion of some of the gallium oxide clusters into the zeolite pore network as charge-compensating Ga species after calcination. Reduction of impregnated Ga/HZSM-5 catalysts leads to complete transformation of the oxidic Ga precursors to charge-compensating Ga⁺ and GaH²⁺ species. A small amount of divalent GaH²⁺ species can be stabilized; however, with increasing Ga/Al ratio monovalent cations dominate. While a model Ga/HZSM-5 catalyst prepared by CVD of Ga(CH₃)₃ containing mainly charge-compensating Ga cations displays high selectivity to dehydrogenated products (olefins, toluene and coke), catalysts with a lower Ga/Al ratio display improved activity with a product mixture resulting from contributions of Ga sites (dehydrogenation, aromatization, olefin cracking) and of Brønsted acid sites (protolytic cracking, olefin cracking). The synergy between Ga dehydrogenation sites and Brønsted acid sites is proposed to improve the dehydrogenation rate: the high acidity of the zeolitic proton facilitates hydrogen recombination and concomitant removal of product olefin from the Ga active sites. Ion-exchanged Ga/HZSM-5 catalyst which combines a difficult to reduce gallium oxide phase and high Brønsted acidity has the highest activity with relatively weak coke formation.     

三甲基膦和金属氧化物复合改性ZSM-5分子筛及其裂解性能研究

以三甲基膦（TMP）为前体对ZSM-5分子筛进行磷改性,以提升其水热稳定性,然后再分别通过等体积浸渍法引入Ga₂O₃或ZnO,制备得到磷和金属氧化物复合改性的ZSM-5分子筛。利用X射线衍射（XRD）、固体核磁（MAS NMR）、氨程序升温脱附（NH₃-TPD）以及吡啶吸附傅里叶变换红外光谱（Py-FTIR）等表征手段系统地研究了磷和金属氧化物复合改性对ZSM-5分子筛的物化性质、P和Al相互作用以及酸性的影响。并以正十四烷裂解为探针反应,研究磷和金属氧化物复合改性对ZSM-5分子筛催化裂解性能的影响。研究结果表明以三甲基膦为前体对ZSM-5分子筛改性,再引入金属氧化物的复合改性方式制备的催化裂解催化剂不仅具有较高的酸性保留度,具有较高的催化裂解活性,也同时保留了金属氧化物中心的脱氢作用,从而提升了C₂⁼~C₄⁼收率及选择性,同时降低了积炭的生成。     

Light olefin production by catalytic co-cracking of Fischer–Tropsch distillate with methanol and the reaction kinetics investigation

Catalytic co-cracking of Fischer–Tropsch(FT) light distillate and methanol combines highly endothermic olefin cracking reaction with exothermic methanol conversion over ZSM-5 catalyst to produce light olefins through a nearly thermoneutral process. The kinetic behavior of co-cracking reactions was investigated by different feed conditions: methanol feed only, olefin feed only and co-feed of methanol with olefins or F–T distillate. The results showed that methanol converted to C_2–C_6 olefins in first-order parallel reaction at low space time, methylation and oligomerization–cracking prevailed for the co-feed of methanol and C_2–C_5 olefins, while for C_6–C_8 olefins,monomolecular cracking was the dominant reaction whether fed alone or co-fed with methanol. For FT distillate and methanol co-feed, alkanes were almost un-reactive, C_3–C_5 olefins were obtained as main products, accounting for 71 wt% for all products. A comprehensive co-cracking reaction scheme was proposed and the model parameters were estimated by the nonlinear least square method. It was verified by experimental data that the kinetic model was reliable to predict major product distribution for co-cracking of FT distillate with methanol and could be used for further reactor development and process design.     

催化剂结构与焦油模型化合物裂解行为的关联性

以Ni（NO₃）₂·6H₂O为镍源,分别以HZSM-5（Si/Al=25）、HZSM-5（Si/Al=50）、HZSM-5（Si/Al=200）、USY、Al₂O₃为载体制备了5种镍基催化剂,采用XRD、H₂-TPR、BET、NH₃-TPD等方法对其进行了表征,在固定床反应器中考察了上述催化剂对煤焦油模型化合物甲苯+芘的催化裂解性能。结果表明,相比惰性载体石英砂,在催化剂作用下,液相产物中轻质芳烃种类明显增多。3种Ni/HZSM-5催化剂的比表面积和平均孔径较为接近,然而酸性中心数量最多的Ni/HZSM-5（Si/Al=25）,对甲苯+芘的裂解能力最强,体现为液体产物收率最低（仅为15.95%）,气产率和析碳率均最高,分别达16.73%和67.32%。在酸性中心数量相近的Ni/HZSM-5（Si/Al=200）与Ni/Al₂O₃作用下,液体产物收率差别较小,但后者的芘裂解率比前者高41.47%,主要是由于后者的平均孔径比前者高1.64倍,说明平均孔径大有利于重质组分芘的裂解。综合考虑液体产物收率、气产率、析碳率和芘的裂解率,Ni/Al₂O₃更适合甲苯+芘裂解反应体系。     

Hydrocarbon synthesis through CO2 hydrogenation over CuZnOZrO2/zeolite hybrid catalysts

Direct syntheses of hydrocarbons from CO₂ hydrogenation were investigated over hybrid catalysts consisting of methanol synthesis catalyst (CuZnOZrO₂) and zeolites (MFI and SAPO). The yield of hydrocarbons was strongly depending upon the amount of zeolite's acid sites as measured by NH₃ TPD, while the product distributions were hardly affected by the change of acidity. The main product was ethane in the case of MFI hybrid catalyst and C₃ or C₄ hydrocarbon in the case of SAPO hybrid catalyst. This difference in product distribution was attributed to different mechanism of hydrocarbon formation. Investigation based on the ethene co-reaction suggested that the consecutive mechanism operated for HZSM-5 and the carbon pool mechanism for SAPO.     

干胶法合成多级孔ZSM-5分子筛及其正辛烷催化裂解反应性能

采用干胶转化法制备多级孔ZSM-5分子筛,利用XRD、N_2吸附-脱附、SEM、TEM和NH_3-TPD等考察添加三嵌段共聚物(P123)、十六烷基三甲基溴化铵(CTAB)、十二烷基硫酸钠(SDS)和聚乙烯吡咯烷酮(PVP)等不同软模板剂合成分子筛样品的物化性质。结果表明,利用P123软模板剂合成的多级孔ZSM-5分子筛具有介孔(2.5 nm)-介孔(9.5 nm)-微孔复合的梯级孔结构,且分子筛酸强度有所增强。多级孔ZSM-5分子筛应用于正辛烷催化裂解反应中,具有较高的催化活性和低碳烯烃收率,其优异的催化性能可能归结于强酸性质和优异扩散传质能力之间的协同作用。     

Zn/NaHZSM-5沸石在C5～C8链烷烃芳构化反应中的催化性能

采用氨气程序升温脱附（NH₃-TPD）、紫外-可见光谱和小型固定床反应器，重点研究了碱金属钠离子和过渡金属锌离子改性对纳米H-ZSM-5沸石表面酸性及其催化C₅～C₈链烷烃芳构化反应性能的影响。结果表明，用碱金属钠离子改性能够有效地消除沸石表面的强酸中心，适当降低催化剂表面酸量，从而减少甲烷、乙烷和丙烷等低值副产物的生成，优化芳构化反应产物分布。适宜的Zn²⁺负载量为3%（质量分数），过高的Zn²⁺负载量会使产物中干气生成量增大，不利于芳烃收率的提高。C₅～C₈链烷烃芳构化的适宜反应温度为530℃。     

ZSM-5分子筛的复合改性及催化裂化性能

针对催化裂化反应中提高汽油辛烷值和增加丙烯收率，对择形分子筛ZSM-5的改性方法进行研究。通过磷、钴和稀土的复合改性，不仅提高改性元素磷的利用率，而且加强分子筛裂化汽油中C₅、C₆烯烃以及异构化和芳构化能力，达到增产丙烯同时生产清洁汽油的目的。小型固定流化床评价结果表明，常规FCC催化剂中添加复合共沉淀法改性分子筛制备的催化剂助剂后，液化气产率提高3.22个百分点，丙烯收率提高1.52个百分点以上，汽油研究法辛烷值提高2个单位以上。     

Developments in aromatization of light over pentasil zeolites

Transformations of C₃-C₅ alkanes over metal contaning pentasils, including gallosilicates have been studied. The possible reasons for the promoting action of Zn, Cd, Ga and Pt in alehydrogenation and cyclization of light alkanes are discussed and the principles for designing selective aromatizing catalysts based on the pentasil type zeolites are suggested.     

The Influence of the Acid Sites on the Methylamines Synthesis with Cu-HZSM-5 Zeolite

There is a high industrial demand for MMA and DMA, however, the production of TMA is favored with the commercial catalysts. This work tested the methanol amination reaction with HZSM-5 and Cu/HZSM-5 zeolites (%Cu = 1.2, 3.7 and 6.0). Regarding the MMA selectivity, light differences were observed among Cu/HZSM-5 catalysts and pure zeolite, although the catalysts containing 3.7% copper was slightly more selective to MMA than the other metallic catalysts studied. From these results it is suggested that the metal loading present in the catalysts leads to a modification in the nature of the acidic sites, in particular, the selectivity depends on ratio Brönsted/Lewis acid sites. This modifications would facilitate the amines desorption during the reaction.     

nMnOx·HZSM-5催化正丁烷裂解增产乙烯丙烯性能研究

采用等体积浸渍法制备nMnO_x·HZSM-5 系列催化剂,用XRD 、NH₃-TPD 、Py-IR 、BET 和SEM 等表征催化剂物相结构和表面性质。在固定床微型反应装置中,对nMnO_x·HZSM-5催化剂进行正丁烷裂解性能评价。结果表明,活性组分Mn借助固相反应以MnO_x 簇形式定位于HZSM-5 分子筛的直形和Z形孔道交叉处,并与其骨架氧结合形成nMnO_x·HZSM-5单相复合体,引起分子筛骨架收缩,晶胞参数及晶胞体积减小;nMnO_x·HZSM-5 催化剂样品总酸量和强酸中心酸量随活性组分Mn用量的增大逐渐减小,B酸/L酸逐渐下降;在反应温度625 ℃和空速5 600 h^-1条件下,Mn质量分数0.5%制备的nMnO_x·HZSM-5-0.5催化剂催化正丁烷裂解反应,正丁烷转化率为76.26%,略低于HZSM-5 分子筛,但乙烯和丙烯收率分别为13.68%和18.93%,分别提高 0.76 个百分点和 1.09 个百分点,表现出较好的增产乙烯和丙烯效果。     

Selective catalytic reduction of NO by C2H2 over MoO3/HZSM-5

Molybdenum impregnated HZSM-5 zeolite catalysts with MoO₃ loading from 1 to 8 wt.% were studied in detail for the selective catalytic reduction (C₂H₂-SCR) of NO by acetylene. A 83.9% of NO could be removed by the reductant at 350 °C under 1600 ppm of NO, 800 ppm of C₂H₂ and 9.95% of O₂ in He over 2%MoO₃/HZSM-5 catalyst with a specific activity of in NO elimination and the competitiveness factor (c.f.) of 33.6% for the reductant. The NO elimination level and the c.f. value were ca. 3–4 times as high as those using methane or propene as reductant over the catalyst in the same reaction condition. About same reaction rate was estimated in NO oxidation as that in the NO reduction over each xMoO₃/HZSM-5 (x = 0–8%) catalyst, which confirms that NO₂ is a crucial intermediate for the aimed reaction over the catalysts. Appropriate amount of Mo incorporation to HZSM-5 considerably enhanced the title reaction, both by accelerating the intermediate formation and by strengthening the adsorption NO_x on the catalyst surface under the reaction conditions. Rather lower adsorption tendency of acetylene compared with propene on the catalysts explains the catalyst's steady performance in the C₂H₂-SCR of NO and rapid deactivation in the C₃H₆-SCR of NO.     

Recycling polystyrene into fuels by means of FCC: performance of various acidic catalysts

In accordance with the option of recycling plastics into fuels by dissolving them in standard feedstocks for the process of catalytic cracking of hydrocarbons, FCC, various acidic catalysts (zeolites ZSM-5, mordenite, Y, and a sulfur-promoted zirconia) were tested in the conversion of polystyrene dissolved into inert benzene at 550°C in a fluidized-bed batch reactor. Experiments were performed with very short contact times of up to 12 s. Main products were in the gasoline range, including benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, styrene, and minor amounts of C_9–12 aromatics and light C₅₋ compounds. Coke was always produced in very significant amounts. All the products can be justified with basis on the properties of each catalyst and the various possible catalytic reaction pathways: cracking after protolytic attack on the polymer fragments, styrene oligomerization and subsequent cracking, or hydrogen transfer to styrene. Styrene would be mainly produced in this system from thermal cracking of the polymer as the initial step. If present, shape selectivity effects due to catalyst structure can influence significantly the prevalence of the various reactions, because they would interfere with those undergoing bulky transition states, like styrene oligomerization or hydrogen transfer. Even though sulfur-promoted zirconia is highly acidic, the low proportion of Brønsted-type acid sites does not allow the occurrence of secondary styrene reactions. It was shown that most favorable product distributions (higher yields of desirable products) are obtained on equilibrium commercial FCC catalysts.     

CO/CO2加氢高选择性合成化学品和液体燃料

一氧化碳/二氧化碳（CO/CO₂）转化利用是碳一化学与CO₂捕集利用中的重要环节,也是当今碳资源的非石油路线利用最具挑战性的方向之一。CO₂的高效活化与定向转化是CO₂利用过程中的关键问题,而CO加氢转化最大的瓶颈问题为如何有效控制C-O键的活化、C—C键的形成、碳链增长及终止。本文主要综述 CO/CO₂加氢高选择性合成重要化工原料低碳烯烃（C₂ ⁼～C₄ ⁼）以及一步高效合成汽油馏分（C₅～C₁₁）等方面取得的突破性进展。目前,CO/CO₂加氢主要经过费托合成与氧化物/分子筛双功能两条路线合成低碳烯烃与汽油燃料。针对费托合成C₂ ⁼～C₄ ⁼,分析表明棱柱状碳化钴得到的烃类产物分布可以显著突破Anderson-Schulz-Flory（ASF）分布的限制,而分子筛已被广泛用于构建双功能费托催化剂,由于酸性分子筛具有加氢裂化、低聚与异构化等功能,使得CO/CO₂还可以直接高选择性地转化为C₅～C₁₁烃类。另一方面,将可以活化CO或CO₂到甲醇的可还原型氧化物与具有C—C偶联功能的SAPO-34或HZSM-5分子筛进行耦合,也可以实现CO/CO₂加氢一步合成低碳烯烃或汽油且具有非常优异的选择性和高转化率。今后,借鉴纳米合成领域新方法,使产物分布打破经典ASF限制,最大限度地提高目标烃类化合物的选择性并显著减少甲烷的生成是研究关键。