A problem-solving based computer-assisted tutorial for the earth sciences

Abstract This study investigated the effects of a Problem-Solving based Computer-Assisted Tutorial (PSCAT) on earth science achievement and attitudes toward earth science of tenth graders (16-year olds) in a senior high school in Taiwan. A total of 137 students who were enrolled in four earth science classes participated in this pre-test/post-test control-group experiment. The experimental groups received the PSCAT; whereas the comparison groups received a Lecture-Internet-Discussion (LID) teaching approach. A multivariate analysis of covariance on the post-test scores of the Earth Science Achievement Test and Attitudes Toward Earth Science Inventory, with students' pre-test scores as the covariates, suggested that PSCAT produced (almost) significantly greater gains on students' earth science achievement than did the LID approach and that no statistically significant increase or decrease in student attitudes toward earth science was found for either group.     

The effects of individually personalized computer-based instructional program on solving mathematics problems

This study investigated the effects of an individually personalized computer-based instructional program on the achievement and attitudes regarding mathematics computational problems and word problems of 104 middle school American students. Students were blocked by math entering knowledge based on pre-test scores, then randomly assigned to a personalized or non-personalized version of the computer-based instructional program. A significant two-way interaction (treatment by math entering knowledge) reflected that personalized higher-level math entering knowledge students and non-personalized higher-level math entering knowledge students had similar post-test scores but personalized lower-level math entering knowledge students scored significantly higher on the post-test than non-personalized lower-level math entering knowledge students. Another significant two-way interaction (math entering knowledge by problem type) reflected that students with higher-level math entering knowledge scored considerably higher on the computational problems than on the word problems while students with lower-level math entering knowledge scored significantly higher on the computational problems than on the word problems. Student attitudes were significantly more favorable toward the personalized computer-based instructional program.     

Computer-supported example-based learning: When instructional explanations reduce self-explanations

We investigated whether the findings from worked-out example research on the effects of self-explanation prompts and on instructional explanations can be generalized to other example types – in this case: solved example problems. Whereas worked-out examples consist of a problem formulation, solution steps, and the final solution, solved example problems merely provide the problem formulation and the solution. We employed a first module of a computer-based environment for student teachers presenting solved example problems from which they learned how to select and to design worked-out examples for high school students. The participants (47 student teachers for German low- and medium-track schools and 33 student teachers for high-track schools) were randomly assigned to the cells of our 2 × 2 design (with vs. without self-explanation prompts; with vs. without instructional explanations). The effects of the different program versions on objective and subjective learning outcomes, on the perceived helpfulness of the program, and on the learning time were analyzed. As learning process data, the written and spoken self-explanations were assessed. The following main results were obtained: Particularly self-explanation prompts had favorable effects on learning outcomes, whereas instructional explanations can reduce the student teacher’s self-explanation activities and thereby the learning outcomes. Whereas “objectively” the most favorable learning outcomes were obtained when only self-explanation prompts were employed, the student teachers perceived their learning outcome best when only instructional explanations were provided. It can be concluded that the status of self-explanation prompts and of instructional explanations is comparable irrespective of the example type presented for learning.     

Internal reinforcement in a connectionist genetic programming approach

Genetic programming (GP) can learn complex concepts by searching for the target concept through evolution of a population of candidate hypothesis programs. However, unlike some learning techniques, such as Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), GP does not have a principled procedure for changing parts of a learned structure based on that structure's performance on the training data. GP is missing a clear, locally optimal update procedure, the equivalent of gradient-descent backpropagation for ANNs. This article introduces a new algorithm, “internal reinforcement”, for defining and using performance feedback on program evolution. This internal reinforcement principled mechanism is developed within a new connectionist representation for evolving parameterized programs, namely “neural programming”. We present the algorithms for the generation of credit and blame assignment in the process of learning programs using neural programming and internal reinforcement. The article includes a comprehensive overview of genetic programming and empirical experiments that demonstrate the increased learning rate obtained by using our principled program evolution approach.     

Deforestation, program transformation, and cut-elimination

The problem of proving that two programs, in any reasonable programming language, are equivalent is well-known to be undecidable. In a formal programming system, in which the rules for equivalence are finitely presented, the problem of provable equivalence is semi-decidable. Despite this improved situation there is a significant lack of generally accepted automated techniques for systematically searching for a proof (or disproof) of program equivalence. Techniques for searching for proofs of equivalence often stumble on the formulation of induction and, of course, coinduction (when it is present) which are often formulated in such a manner as to require inspired guesses.There are, however, well-known program transformation techniques which do address these issues. Of particular interest to this paper are the deforestation techniques introduced by Phil Wadler and the fold/unfold program transformation techniques introduced by Burstall and Darlington. These techniques are shadows of an underlying cut-elimination procedure and, as such, should be more generally recognized as proof techniques.In this paper we show that these techniques apply to languages which have both inductive and coinductive datatypes. The relationship between these program transformation techniques and cut-elimination requires a transformation from initial and final “algebra” proof rules into “circular” proof rules as introduced by Santocanale (and used implicitly in the model checking community). This transformation is only possible in certain proof systems. Here we show that it can be applied to cartesian closed categories with datatypes: closedness is an essential requirement. The cut-elimination theorems and attendant program transformation techniques presented here rely heavily on this alternate presentation of induction and coinduction.     

FLASK-SG: A program to compute chemical equilibria in metamorphic petrology

Chemical equilibrium calculation program for metamorphic petrology, FLASK-SG, was written for Unix variants (Linux, IRIX, Tru64 UNIX). It is also ported to Windows 95/98. The user specifies a temperature, pressure, and substance amounts (in moles of any chemical formula in C–H–O–Si–Al–Ti–Fe–Mn–Mg–Ca–Na–K system) to this program, then it calculates the stable mineral assemblage, mineral amounts, and gas composition under the given conditions using Gibbs free energy minimization method with the Holland and Powell (1990) data set. Searching algorithm for the stable mineral assemblage is the Metropolis Monte Carlo method. The coding language is C++, and experimental object oriented programming style is adopted to make the main program part as a class library. Model-dependent functions such as fugacity coefficients and activities are implemented as virtual methods of the “systems” class, so they can be easily changed as methods of inherited class from the “systems” class. These characteristics are aimed for a future “simulation kit”.     

Responses to ambivalence toward social networking sites: A typological perspective

A common assumption in prior research on social networking sites (SNS) has been that users' orientations toward SNS use are positioned somewhere along a bipolar, univalent continuum, stretching from negative to positive orientation. However, considering recent findings unfolding the intricacy and variety of SNS use patterns, such a linear conceptualization of users' orientations is too simplistic with limited ability to explain the intricate patterns of SNS use. To alleviate this deficiency in this paper, we draw on the ambivalence literature and explain that users can simultaneously experience both positive and negative orientations toward SNS use based on the positive and negative aspects of their SNS use experience. Focusing on post- adoptive SNS use context, we theorise archetypes of SNS users' attitudinal responses to ambivalence, and their associated behavioural outcomes in terms of SNS use patterns. We first follow a typological perspective and develop typologies of attitudinal and behavioural responses to ambivalence toward SNS use. Then, we offer six hypotheses that explain the relations between the archetypes of attitudinal responses to ambivalence toward SNS use and users' SNS use patterns. Lastly, we empirically test our hypotheses using latent profile analysis and ANCOVA applied to two-wave data collected from 370 ambivalent SNS users. The findings support the hypotheses and validate our typologies. The findings ultimately point to likely choices from a range of post-adoption SNS use patterns as plausible outcomes of SNS users' attitudinal responses to ambivalence.     

Initial feasibility of a researcher configurable computerized self-monitoring system

This study sought to evaluate the feasibility of a researcher configurable self-monitoring program. An initial prototype of the program was developed as a Windows-based drag and drop flow chart interface for the researcher to construct the self-monitoring or diary protocol to be scheduled and displayed to the subject on a Pocket PC. The usability of the desktop researcher interface was evaluated in a small sample of medication trial researchers whose ratings of the prototype were generally positive and provided directions for improvement. The subject interface was then evaluated in an “analog” drug trial of 49 smokers using nicotine gum. These subjects were randomly assigned to either paper-based log or Pocket PC self-monitoring for 3 weeks. Pocket PC subjects were significantly more compliant than the log subjects on recording in the second (65% vs. 39%) and third (69% vs. 39%) weeks of the trial but did not differ from the log condition on total recording entries, likely due to the restrictions on retrospective recording in the Pocket PC program. This study provides support for the feasibility of a researcher configurable electronic diary system which should substantially reduce the programming barriers to electronic self-monitoring and increase the use of real-time monitoring in clinical and research venues.     

Implementing flipped learning approach based on ‘first principles of instruction’ in mathematics courses

This study investigates the effect of E-learning (EL), blended learning (BL) and flipped learning (FL) approaches on the mathematics achievement, self-regulation and mathematics self-efficacy. Participants consist of 163 first-year students attending an associate degree program (a 2-year program) of a state university. The EL, BL and FL settings in the research were designed based on Merrill's ‘First Principles of Instruction Design Theory’. In the research in which a quasi-experimental pre-test–post-test research design was used, the data were obtained by means of mathematics achievement test, self-regulation and self-efficacy questionnaires. The experimental results showed that the mathematics achievement post-test scores of FL students were significantly higher than those of the students of EL and BL. No significant difference was found between BL and EL settings. In addition, FL students showed significantly higher self-regulation and mathematics self-efficacy than the other groups' students. According to these results, it can be said that the usage of FL approach in mathematics courses has a positive effect on the learning process of students. It is expected that the findings will be helpful in the future design and implementation of mathematics courses at vocational colleges.     

The impact of Nintendo Wii to physical education students' balance compared to the traditional approaches

The purpose of this study was to determine whether there is a difference between an exergame-based and a traditional balance training program, in undergraduate Physical Education students. Thirty two third-year undergraduate students at the Democritus University of Thrace were randomly divided into two training program groups of 16 students each, a traditional and a Nintendo Wii group. The two training program groups performed a specific balance program for 8 weeks, two times per week, and 24 min per session. The Nintendo Wii group used the interactive games Wii Fit Plus of the Nintendo Wii console, as a training method to improve their balance, while the traditional group used an exercise program with mini trampoline and inflatable discs. Before and after the completion of the eight-week balance program, participants completed a single leg static balance assessment for both limbs on the Biodex stability system. Two-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs), with repeated measures on the last factor, were conducted to determine effect of training program groups (traditional, Nintendo Wii) and measures (pre-test, post-test) on balance test indices (SI, API, and MLI). Where initial differences between groups were verified, one-way analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) were applied. Analysis of the data illustrated that both groups demonstrated an improvement in SI, API and MLI mean scores for the right and the left limp as well. Conclusively, findings support the effectiveness of using the Nintendo Wii gaming console as an intervention for undergraduate Physical Education students, and specifically, its effects on physical function related to balance competence.     

Teaching programming: A spiral approach to syntax and semantics

Coupling the recently proposed syntactic/semantic model of programmer behavior [1] with classic educational psychological theories yields new insights to teaching programming to novices. These new insights should make programming education more natural to students. alleviate “computer shock” (the analog of “math anxiety” [2]) and promote the development of widespread “computer literacy”.The spiral approach is the parallel acquisition of syntactic and semantic knowledge in a sequence which provokes student interest by using meaningful examples, builds on previous knowledge, is in harmony with the student's cognitive skills, provides reinforcement of recently acquired material and develops confidence through successful accomplishment of increasingly difficult tasks. The relationship of structured programming and flowcharts to the spiral approach is discussed.     

The influence of computer-assisted instruction on students’ conceptual understanding of chemical bonding and attitude toward chemistry: A case for Turkey

In this study, the effect of computer-assisted instruction on conceptual understanding of chemical bonding and attitude toward chemistry was investigated. The study employed a quasi-experimental design involving 11 grade students; 25 in an experimental and 25 in a control group. The Chemical Bonding Achievement Test (CBAT) consisting of 15 two-tier questions and the Chemistry Attitude Scale (CAS) consisting of 25 item were the principal data collection tools used. The CBAT and CAS instruments were administered in the form of a pre-test and post-test. Analyses of scores of the two groups in the post-test were compared and a statistically significant difference was found between groups in favor of experimental group. It also seems students from the experimental group were more successful than the control group students in remediation of alternative conceptions. The results of this study suggest that teaching–learning of topics in chemistry related to chemical bonding can be improved by the use of computer-assisted teaching materials.     

The effects of conceptual change texts accompanied with animations on overcoming 11th grade students’ alternative conceptions of chemical bonding

This paper aims to determine the effect of conceptual change texts accompanied with computer animations on 11th grade students’ understanding and alternative conceptions related to chemical bonding. One experimental group (EG; N = 28) and one comparison group (CG; N = 30) were used in the study. While the comparison group taught traditional instruction, the experimental group received conceptual change text accompanied with computer animations instruction. Chemical bonding achievement test was applied as pre-test, post-test and delayed test to collect data. The results of the study indicated that while there is no statistically significant difference between groups in pre-test, performance of EG students is greater than the CG ones in post-test and delayed test. And also, the EG students are better in remediating their alternative conceptions related to chemical bonding. Based on the study, it is concluded that conceptual change texts combined with computer animations can be effective instructional tools to improve students’ conceptual understanding of chemical concepts.     

Comparing alternate teaching styles to teach computing skills to girls in their English classes

Low female participation rates in computing are a current concern of the education sector. To address this problem an intervention was developed — computing skills were introduced to girls in their English classes using three different teaching styles: peer tutoring, cross-age tutoring and teacher instruction (control). The sample comprised 136 girls from Years 8 and 10 from a single-sex government school. A pre-test post-test quantitative design was used. To describe the students perspectives, qualitative data were collected from six focus groups conducted with 8–10 students — one from each of the six classes. It was predicted that cross-age tutoring would yield more positive effects than peer tutoring which, in turn, would yield more positive effects than traditional teacher instruction as assessed by achievement on class tasks and attitudes towards computing. The hypothesis was not supported by the quantitative analysis, however in the qualitative data cross-age tutoring was appraised more favourably than peer tutoring or teacher instruction. The latter was the least preferred condition due to: (1) inefficiency; (2) difficulty understanding teachers' explanations; and (3) lack of teacher knowledge. Problems with the implementation of the intervention identified in the focus groups were teacher differences, system failures, missed classes, lack of communication, and selection of computing activities. Practical suggestions were provided relevant to the introduction of cross-age tutoring and the use of computers within secondary level English classes.     

Segmented Animation,User-Control Strategy and Cognition

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of various user-control strategies of segmented animation in learning abstract contents or processes that are not naturally visual on the cognition of students. In particular, the study examined the effects of five different user-control strategies: linear user-control, random user-control, free user-control, program-control, and continuous user-control. The research design was quasi-experimental and the data obtained were statistically analysed using ANCOVA and ANOVA. The instruments involved were pre-test, post-test, and NASA-TLX cognitive load test. The sample size consisted of 265 semester-two students enrolled in the Diploma in Networking System. The results indicated significant differences in the post-test and cognitive load test outcomes. In conclusion, this study suggests that the use of user-control, either linear user-control or random user-control, were sufficient strategies for learning abstract contents in segmented animation form.     

Computerized dynamic testing of children's potential for reasoning by analogy: The role of executive functioning

This study aimed to investigate children's potential for reasoning by analogy utilizing a newly-developed computerized dynamic test, and the potential differential influence of executive functions (cognitive flexibility, attention, and planning) on static and dynamic measures of analogical reasoning. Participants included 64 children (mean age = 7.55). The study employed a two-session experimental test-training-test design. Based on randomized blocking, half of the children received a graduated prompts training between pre-test and post-test, and the other half did not. Trained children improved more than control children in both their accuracy scores and number of accurately applied transformations from pre-test to post-test. It was further found that cognitive flexibility, attention and planning, is associated with successful solving of analogies. Training children in analogical reasoning seemed to reduce the effect of executive functions. It was also found that that children who were more cognitively flexible needed more prompts during the training.     

Enhancing development team flexibility in IS projects

Information system development projects face tremendous challenges because of business changes and technology changes. Research has shown that software team flexibility has a positive effect on project outcomes, but specific requirements for enhancing flexibility are lacking. Drawing from the input-mediator-outcome (IMO) team effectiveness framework, this research investigates the contextual inputs and team processes that lead to development team flexibility and how well team flexibility improves project outcomes. A survey was developed to consider a model derived from the IMO framework. One hundred fourteen members of information systems development project teams in China responded to the survey. Partial least squares analysis was used served to analyze the data. Results indicate that a participatory culture and cooperative norms are an effective foundation for improving required processes that include project coordination of the project and knowledge sharing activities. In turn, the improved process performance extends responses to changes in technology and the business climate. The improved flexibility in meeting change is predictive of outcomes related to project performance and quality of the final product.     

The effects of a wiki-based collaborative process writing pedagogy on writing ability and attitudes among upper primary school students in Mainland China

This study mainly explored the effects of a Wiki-based Collaborative Process Writing Pedagogy (WCPWP) on writing ability and writing attitudes among Primary Four students in Shenzhen, China. Besides, this study also investigated students' collaborative writing process with the WCPWP. Students wrote their compositions in a MediaWiki platform (www.joyouswriting.com) named Joyous Writing Club (JWC) developed by the first author. By using a quasi-experimental design, two groups (classes) of Primary Four students participated in this study. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected including writing ability composition tests (pre-test and post-test), writing attitude tests (pre-test and post-test), online wiki documents, and observations. The results provided a general picture of the students' collaborative writing process and showed that the WCPWP had a positive but not significant effect on students' writing ability. Importantly, the results indicated that the WCPWP had a significant positive effect on the writing attitudes of students. The study further discussed the reasons related to the positive effects of the WCPWP on writing ability (not significant) and writing interests (significant). Implications and recommendations for primary school educators and Chinese language teachers are discussed.     

A simple way to construct interactive processors

A FORTRAN program is presented which reads instruction lines entered from a timesharing terminal, and interprets them as beginning with an instruction word and continuing with “declarations”. The instruction word and the information in the declarations are passed to a linking subroutine and thence to a set of user-supplied subroutines which act on the instruction. The program is in effect the nucleus of a processor and, when linked to a working set of subroutines, it can be made to approximate to a simple computer “language”. Any number of such languages can be built with the program as a basis. A language of this sort is unlikely to be as powerful, as versatile, or as generalized as FORTRAN, but it is certain to be simpler to work with in the user's particular context, to which it can be adjusted as nicely as programming time and costs permit. The program is not very useful for small or circumscribed tasks, or for applications already covered by standard libraries; its value lies rather in simplifying specialized tasks of moderate complexity and diversity. A companion paper illustrates a use of the program in a processor for handling data obtained with a digitizer.