Cognitive triad: relationship to depressive symptoms, parents' cognitive triad, and perceived parental messages

Evaluating the relationship between children's depressogenic thinking, children's depressive symptoms, parents' depressogenic thinking, and perceived parental messages about the self, world, and future was the primary objective of this investigation. Children (n = 133) from grades 4 to 7 completed measures of depression and anxiety, including a semistructured clinical interview, a measure of their cognitive triad, and a measure of perceived parental messages about the self, world, and future. Mothers (n = 112) and fathers (n = 95) completed a measure of their own cognitive triad. Results of a series of regression analyses revealed that (1) children's views of self, world, and future (cognitive triad) are related to severity of depression; (2) mothers' but not fathers' cognitive triads are related to their children's cognitive triads; (3) perceived parental messages to the children about the self, world, and future are predictive of the children's cognitive triads and ratings of depression; and (4) the relationship between perceived parental messages and depression is completely mediated by children's cognitive triads. Analyses of covariance indicated that the obtained mediational relationship between children's views of self, world, and future, perceived parental messages, and children's depressive symptoms was specific to depressive versus anxious symptomatology. Implications for existing theory and research are discussed.     

Cognition and life stress in depression: Cognitive factors and the definition, rating, and generation of negative life events.

The relationship between cognitive factors and different conceptualizations and measures of life stress poses important questions for contemporary theories of depression. The authors examined whether cognitive factors (dysfunctional attitudes and attributional style) are related to the definition, rating, and generation of negative life events. Life events were assessed with both subjective self-report and more objective interview-based methods in endogenously depressed outpatients. The results partially support the hypothesis that cognitive factors are related to definition and severity ratings of self-report measures of particular types of life events. These relationships held primarily for achievement, as compared with interpersonal, events. The results also support the hypothesis that elevated scores on measures of cognition are associated with the number of objectively defined events occurring prior to the onset of depression, suggesting that some patients may generate the life events that in turn may initiate a depressive episode. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive styles and life events interact to predict bipolar and unipolar symptomatology.

This study examined the interaction of cognitive style (as assessed self-report and information-processing battery) and stressful life events in predicting the clinician-rated depressive and manic symptomatology of participants with Research Diagnostic Criteria lifetime diagnoses of bipolar disorder (n?=?49), unipolar depression (n?=?97), or no lifetime diagnosis (n?=?23). Bipolar and unipolar participants' attributional styles, dysfunctional attitudes, and negative self-referent information processing as assessed at Time 1 interacted significantly with the number of negative life events that occurred between Times 1 and 2 to predict increases in depressive symptoms from Time 1 to Time 2. Within the bipolar group, participants' Time 1 attributional styles and dysfunctional attitudes interacted significantly, and their self-referent information processing interacted marginally, with intervening life events to predict increases in manic symptoms from Time 1 to Time 2. These findings provide support for the applicability of cognitive vulnerability–stress theories of depression to bipolar spectrum disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences and adolescent depression.

This study investigates the role of certain psychosocial variables—sex, age, body image/self-esteem, self-consciousness, stressful life events, and the degree to which an individual identifies with the cultural stereotype of masculinity—as correlates and antecedents to depression in adolescents and explores possible intraindividual mediators of the stress–depression relationship in adolescents. A battery of self-report measures was administered to public high school students in Grades 9–12 in their classrooms at two different times 1 month apart. Female adolescents reported more depressive symptoms, self-consciousness, stressful recent events, feminine attributes, and negative body image and self-esteem; no age effects were obtained. Results suggest a model of adolescent depression in which body image/self-esteem and stressful recent events are significant contributors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-perceived competence and the relation between life events and depressive symptoms in adolescence: Mediator or moderator?

In a 2-wave longitudinal study, 9th-grade students (N ?=?468) completed self-report measures of stressful life events, depressive symptoms, and 5 domains of self-perceived competence (i.e., academic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance, behavioral conduct, and athletic competence). Teachers and peers also reported about the participants' depressive symptoms. In longitudinal analyses, negative (but not positive) events related to depressive symptoms. Results suggested that self-perceived competence served as a mediator (but not a moderator) of this relation. Negative events predicted changes in self-perceived competence. Self-perceived competence predicted changes in depressive symptoms. Also, the direct effect of negative events on depressive symptoms diminished after controlling for self-perceived competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive vulnerability to depressive symptoms in adolescents in urban and rural Hunan, China: A multiwave longitudinal study.

The current multiwave longitudinal study examined the applicability of two cognitive vulnerability-stress models of depression—Beck's (1967, 1983) cognitive theory and the hopelessness theory (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989)—in two independent samples of adolescents from Hunan Province, China (one rural and one urban). During an initial assessment, participants completed measures assessing dysfunctional attitudes (Beck, 1967, 1983), negative cognitive style (Abramson et al., 1989), neuroticism (Costa & McCrae, 1992), depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms. Once a month for the subsequent 6 months, participants completed measures assessing the occurrence of different types of negative events, depressive symptoms, and anxiety symptoms. Results provided support for cognitive vulnerability factors as predictors of increases in depressive symptoms following the occurrence of higher than average levels of negative events in Chinese adolescents. The results also supported the specificity of these two cognitive vulnerability factors as predictors of depressive versus anxiety symptoms following the occurrence of higher than average levels of negative events (i.e., symptom specificity), and the ability of cognitive vulnerability factors to predict prospective change in depressive symptoms above and beyond the effects of trait neuroticism (i.e., etiological specificity). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study of children's depressive symptoms, self-perceptions, and cognitive distortions about the self.

This longitudinal study examined how depressive symptoms relate to children's self-perceptions and to estimates of children's cognitive distortions about the self in a nonclinical sample of children who were followed from 4th grade (n=248) through 6th grade (n=227). Report card grades measured children's academic competence, and teachers' ratings of children's level of peer acceptance at school indicated social acceptance. Self-reported depressive symptoms predicted a change in children's negative views of the self. Moreover, the self-perceptions of children who exhibited more symptoms of depression appeared to reflect an underestimation of their actual competence. Children's negative self-perceptions and underestimations about the self were not associated with a subsequent change in depressive symptoms. The implications of the findings for cognitive theories of depression and future research with this population are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social problem solving as a moderator of stress-related depressive symptoms: A prospective analysis.

Previous research has suggested that problem-solving skills serve to moderate the likelihood that individuals will experience depressive symptoms as a function of negative stressful life events. The present study attempted both to replicate this finding and to provide for a more rigorous test of this hypothesis by (a) using a prospective design, (b) controlling for prior level of depression, (c) incorporating two measures of problem solving, and (d) including several methodological controls to increase the validity of the assessment of stressful life events. Results from both the cross-sectional and prospective analyses involving data collected from 150 university students provided support for the hypothesis that problem solving moderates stress-related depressive symptoms. More specifically, for both measures of problem solving, results indicated that effective problem solvers under high levels of stress reported significantly lower depression scores than ineffective problem solvers under similar levels of stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Synovial immunohistochemical changes after high tibial osteotomy for osteoarthritis of the knee. Two-year prospective follow-up

PURPOSE: To evaluate a program designed to help high school students with depressive symptomology to effectively cope. DESIGN: Two-phase experimental study. METHODS: Rural high school students (N = 222), ages 14 through 19 years, were surveyed to identify teens with depressive symptomatology, identify stressful life events and coping styles of at-risk subjects, and evaluate a cognitive-behavioral group intervention to enhance students' coping and affect levels of depression. Students with depressive symptomatology were randomized into control (n = 18) or intervention (n = 23) groups. Intervention subjects were treated with a nurse-led, 8-week cognitive skills group, conducted at school. RESULTS: On posttesting, the intervention groups demonstrated reduced depressive symptoms in females and a wider range of coping compared with controls. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: School-based nurses are in an ideal position to provide assessment, referral, and intervention programs in the natural setting of the school. Results of this study indicate that such programs can be implemented successfully in schools and have the potential to promote mental health in teenagers.     

Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence.

This 4-yr longitudinal study of 191 girls and 185 boys living in intact families in the rural Midwest examines the trajectories of life events and depressive symptoms in adolescence. The trajectories of depressive symptoms differ between boys and girls. Compared with boys, girls experienced a greater number of depressive symptoms after age 13. Changes in uncontrollable events are associated with the increases in girls' but not boys' depressive symptoms. Latent growth curve analyses show that, over 4 yrs, (1) depressive symptoms for girls changed according to a curvilinear pattern that is associated with changes in stressful events; (2) the level of depressive symptoms is related to the level of life events for both boys and girls; and (3) change in depressive symptoms is significantly related to change in stressful events only for girls. Girls living with less supportive mothers are more vulnerable to negative life changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitions and stress: Direct and moderating effects on depressive versus externalizing symptoms during the junior high school transition.

This study examined direct and stress-moderating effects of attributional style and global self-worth on depressive and externalizing symptoms in adolescents. Attributional style, perceived self-worth, depressive symptoms, and externalizing behaviors were assessed in 371 students in the spring of 6th grade. After the transition to 7th grade, they again completed measures of depression and externalizing symptoms as well as measures of negative life events and school hassles. Stressors around the transition predicted both depressive and externalizing behaviors. Perceived self-worth predicted depressive symptoms, but not externalizing behaviors. Attributional style directly and in interaction with stressors predicted depressive symptoms and did not predict externalizing behavior. A 3-way interaction between stress, attributional style, and self-worth suggested that level of perceived self-worth may moderate the effects of attributional style in times of stress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Seeing the silver lining: Cognitive reappraisal ability moderates the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms.

Individuals differ in their adjustment to stressful life events, with some exhibiting impaired functioning, including depression, while others exhibit impressive resilience. The present study examined the hypothesis that the ability to deploy a particularly adaptive type of emotion regulation—cognitive reappraisal—may be a protective factor. It expands upon existing research in three ways. First, participants' ability to use reappraisal (cognitive reappraisal ability: CRA) was measured by using a behavioral challenge that assessed changes in experiential and physiological domains, rather than questionnaires. Second, all participants had been exposed to one or more recent stressful life events, a context in which emotion regulation may be particularly important. Third, a community sample of 78 women aged 20 to 60 was recruited, as opposed to undergraduates. Results indicate that, at low levels of stress, participants' CRA was not associated with depressive symptoms. However, at high levels of stress, women with high CRA exhibited less depressive symptoms than those with low CRA, suggesting that CRA may be an important moderator of the link between stress and depressive symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms.

This study examined the role of both pubertal and social transitions in the emergence of gender differences in depressive symptoms during adolescence. This study generated the following findings: (a) Gender differences in depressive symptoms emerged during 8th grade and remained significant through 12th grade. (b) Pubertal status in 7th grade was related to adolescent depressive symptoms over time. (c) Early-maturing girls represented the group with the highest rate of depressive symptoms. (d) Depressive symptoms measured in 7th grade predicted subsequent symptom levels throughout the secondary school years. (e) Recent stressful life events were associated with increased depressive symptoms. (f) Early-maturing girls with higher levels of initial symptoms and more recent stressful life events were most likely to be depressed subsequently. The findings demonstrate the importance of the interaction between the pubertal transition and psychosocial factors in increasing adolescent vulnerability to depressive experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social support and stress during the first year of graduate school.

Describes the effects of varying levels of social interaction on 22 1st-yr graduate students' reports of stressful events and on their health and emotional problems during the 1st 6 mo of graduate study. Ss completed 2 questionnaires partially drawn from the Graduate Student Questionnaire. They also recorded their social contacts. An inverse relationship was found between frequency of social interactions with peers and faculty during the 1st 10 wks of study and the incidence of stressful life events and the number of reported physical and psychological disturbances throughout the next 6 mo. The quality of faculty–student interactions also emerged as an important factor that moderated the negative consequences of the major life changes associated with beginning graduate school. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal history for psychological stress related to locus of control orientation among college women.

Analyzed retrospective reports on stressful life events throughout childhood and adolescence and a measure of internal-external locus of control orientation (Nowicki-Strickland Personal Reaction Survey) for 34 female undergraduates. Data were analyzed by the Mann-Whitney U test comparing accrued positive, negative, and neutral stress for internals vs externals at each of 4 age periods. Findings indicate that (a) only events associated with remembered affective significance were related to locus of control orientation; (b) affectively significant, recalled life stresses (preschool) were related to reporting a strong external control orientation in adulthood; and (c) recalled positive life stresses over which the respondent likely had some control during high school years tended to be related to a strong internal control orientation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Life events and psychological distress: A prospective study of young adolescents.

Seventh and 8th graders were administered measures of negative and positive life experiences and psychological distress on 2 occasions approximately 5 mo apart to examine the etiologic role of negative life events in the maladjustment of early adolescents. 233 7th–8th graders were administered the Junior High Life Experiences Survey, the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and a child development inventory at Time 1. 79 of the 233 Ss completed the 3 measures at Time 2. Cross-sectional regression analyses revealed a significant positive relationship between negative events and distress but generally failed to support the stress-buffering effects of positive events. However, in the prospective analyses, negative events were not predictive of psychological distress and were, in fact, themselves partly determined by previous distress. Results are compared with previous studies of adult life events and suggest the importance of ongoing stressful processes as engendering both maladjustment and stressful events in the lives of early adolescents. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive, behavioral, and family factors in the differentiation of depressive and anxiety disorders during childhood.

Contribution of cognitive, behavioral, and family environment variables to the differentiation of depressive and anxiety disorders in children was explored. 59 children from Grades 4–7 (14 diagnosed with a depressive disorder, 16 diagnosed with depressive and anxiety disorders, 11 diagnosed with an anxiety disorder, and 18 nondisturbed controls) completed measures of the depressive cognitive triad, depressive cognitions, social skills, family environment, and maladaptive family messages. Results of a stepwise discriminant function analysis indicated that 2 discriminant functions composed of 7 variables from the cognitive, behavioral, and family environment domains accounted for 91% of the between-groups variance. Results suggest that depressive disorders can be distinguished from anxiety disorders on the basis of ratings of cognition, social skills, and family environment. Implications for existing research and a model of depression during childhood are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring abuse stress and negative cognitive appraisals in child sexual abuse: validity data on two new scales

The validity of two measures assessing degree of stress associated with sexual abuse was examined in a sample of 48 girls who had been sexually abused. The Checklist of Sexual Abuse and Related Stressors (C-SARS) assessed negative life events that were part of or were related to the abuse, and the Negative Appraisals of Sexual Abuse Scale (NASAS) assessed negative cognitive appraisals of threat, harm, or loss associated with the abuse. Total scores for victim reports of both stressful events and negative appraisals were positively and significantly related to two other measures of abuse severity: therapist ratings of abuse stress and the number of types of sexual abuse reported. Stressful event scores were also related to aggressive behavior problems, sexual concerns, and total symptom scores on the Child Behavior Checklist. Negative cognitive appraisal scores were related to victims' self-reports of depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress symptoms, and to parents reports of child depression and total symptoms. Regression analyses indicated that there were significant effects of negative appraisals on internalizing symptoms when controlling for the level of stressful events experienced. The results suggest that negative life events and negative appraisals associated with sexual abuse are valid constructs that help account for variability in mental health outcomes among child victims. The implications of these results and future research directions in examining variable outcomes among sexual abuse victims are discussed.     

A Cross-Cultural Investigation of Cognitions and Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents.

Adolescents (N=2,272) from Hong Kong and the United States provided information regarding their depressive symptoms, cognitions (self-efficacy, negative cognitive errors, and hopelessness), and stressful events between 2 surveys 6 months apart. Depressive symptoms and hopelessness were higher, and self-efficacy and negative cognitive errors were lower in Hong Kong than in the United Stales. Cognitions were associated with concurrent depressive symptoms and predicted depressive symptoms 6 months later in both cultures. The "reverse" model was also supported with more variance predicted by depressive symptoms to later cognitions than from cognitions to depressive symptoms. There was some support for the hypothesis that self-efficacy is less salient in collective compared with individualistic cultures. These findings extend cognitive theories of depression to a non-Western culture. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparative data on child and adolescent cognitive measures associated with depression.

As a way to better understand the effects of treatment for depression, comparative data on measures of cognition have been compiled previously for adults. Such data should be able to aid the evaluation of cognition and cognitive change, and may provide valuable information for clinicians and researchers alike. In this article, analogous comparative data on cognitive measures associated with depression in children and adolescents are presented. The reviewed instruments assess cognitive errors, attributional style, dysfunctional attitudes, hopelessness, negative self-statements, and Beck's negative cognitive triad. As with adults, these data may have implications for enhancing understanding of empirically supported treatments for children and adolescents, may be useful in vulnerability research, and may be useful to clinicians seeking to develop treatment strategies and to gauge treatment effectiveness. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)