Factors associated with dairy farmers' satisfaction and preparedness to adopt recommendations after veterinary herd health visits

Herd health and production consultancy are important aspects of the modern dairy veterinary practice; therefore, veterinary farm visits will likely be more successful if veterinary practitioners communicate effectively and meet farmers' expectations. Objectives were to assess dairy farmers' satisfaction with veterinary advisors and their perceived preparedness to adopt veterinary advice. Furthermore, we assessed whether farmers' satisfaction and preparedness to adopt advice were associated with specific predictor variables; that is, general (demographic) factors of veterinarians or farmers, communication tools used by veterinarians, and veterinarians' affective attributes during the farm visit. Audio-video recordings of 14 dairy veterinarians during 70 herd health and production management farm visits were analyzed using the Roter interaction analysis system. Demographic data, farmers' satisfaction, and farmers' preparedness to adopt advice were obtained by using questionnaires. Overall, farmers were satisfied with their veterinarian's communication during farm visits and 58% of farmers felt “absolutely” prepared to follow veterinary recommendations. Based on multivariable regression analysis, farmers' satisfaction was positively associated with their level of education and the amount of talk the veterinarian dedicated to counseling the farmer. However, satisfaction was negatively association with the ratio between veterinarian talk and farmer talk. In addition to various demographic variables, farmers' preparedness to adopt veterinary advice was positively associated with their satisfaction. Other predictor variables for farmers' preparedness to follow recommendations included increased veterinary counseling and frequent herd data discussions, whereas there was a negative relationship between number of farmer questions and dominance of the veterinarian during the farm visit. Identification of factors influencing farmers' satisfaction and preparedness to adopt advice will make veterinary communication more effective and could inform training of veterinarians in communication.     

Communication styles of Swedish veterinarians involved in dairy herd health management: A motivational interviewing perspective

Veterinary communication has evolved in the context of traditional veterinary tasks, such as diagnosing and treating sick animals, and this may encourage a directive communication style, in which the veterinarian acts as an expert, directing the client in what to do and how to do it. This type of communication style has been shown to evoke resistance to change in clients who are experiencing psychological ambivalence, a well-known aspect of farmers' herd health decisions. Veterinary herd health management (VHHM) constitutes an increasing proportion of the work of cattle veterinarians and often focuses on behavior change. The present study aimed to characterize communication styles of Swedish dairy cattle veterinarians involved in VHHM in relation to their skills in facilitating behavior change. A secondary aim was to investigate whether these skills differed among veterinarians depending on their experience in the veterinary profession or in VHHM. Audio-recorded role-play conversations (n = 123; reflecting VHHM telephone consultations) with 42 veterinarians involved in VHHM in Swedish dairy herds and audio-recorded on-farm consultations (n = 86) with 18 of those veterinarians were coded using a system developed to evaluate motivational interviewing (MI) skills. Motivational interviewing is a communication methodology aimed at facilitating clients' internal motivation to change. The MI Treatment Integrity (MITI) code identifies frequency counts of 10 verbal behaviors, and assesses 4 global variables on a Likert scale, based on 20 min of conversation. It also suggests 6 summary measurements of MI competency based on these 14 original variables. Of the 42 veterinarians, 39 also responded to a web questionnaire about their age, continuing education, and experience in the profession, in dairy herds and in VHHM. We analyzed associations between the 6 summary MITI variables from the role-play conversations and characteristics of the 39 veterinarians using logistic and linear multivariable regression models. Veterinarians in the role-play and on-farm conversations relied predominantly on giving information, questions, and persuasion in their consultation approaches. They generally did not explore the client's expectations or wishes regarding the agenda for the consultation, or acknowledge the client's right to make decisions about actions. Veterinarians gave advice without exploring the client's need for the advice or how the information was perceived. We found a significant reduction in so-called relational scores (Empathy plus Partnership) and an increase in MI-nonadherent behaviors (Persuasion plus Confront) as years of veterinary experience increased. Results showed that there is room for improvement in the communication style of veterinarians involved in VHHM. Wider literature suggests that training veterinarians in a client-centered communication methodology such as MI may increase the demand for and success of VHHM.     

Consultancy to dairy farmers relating to animal health and herd health management on small- and medium-sized farms

The objectives of this study were to obtain information about animal health challenges for dairy farmers of small- and medium-sized herds and about the fields in which consultancy services should be improved. The hyperlink to an internet-based survey was sent to 9,021 farmers in Austria. The survey included questions about the participants and their farms, about who is consulting with the farmers with regard to animal health, feeding, sire selection, construction of barns and animal husbandry, about animal health issues farmers find most challenging, and about their demands for improved consultancy services. The questionnaire was completed anonymously. Analyses were stratified by milk yield (categorized) and whether farmers worked full-time or part-time. The overall response rate was 11.3% (n = 1,018). The majority of farms kept less than 20 cows (54.0%) or 20 to 50 cows (40.1%). With regard to animal health, the veterinarian was the most important consultant for the majority of farmers (84.6%). On issues related to feeding, sire selection, and stable construction, the veterinarian was seen as a less important consultant than specialists in these fields (20.4, 11.6, and 7.9% suggested the veterinarian as an important consultant in these areas). The survey indicated that reproductive disorders, udder disease, poor conception rate, lameness, and calf diarrhea represent the most important challenges to farmers. Of these, concerns about calf diarrhea were affected by milk yield of the herds and management. More high- than low-yielding farms (11.7 vs. 6.4%) and more full-time than part-time managed herds (9.6 vs.4.3%) regarded calf diarrhea as an important problem. Farmers would welcome improved consultancy with regard to fertility, feeding, and sire selection. The results indicated which animal health issues farmers find particularly challenging and displayed which areas farmers require improved consultancy services. Veterinarians and organizations offering consultancy should take the results into consideration in improving or adapting their advisory services.     

Associations between herd characteristics and reproductive efficiency in dairy herds

Dairy herds worldwide are experiencing a decline in reproductive efficiency at the same time as management methods are changing. This study aimed to investigate the extent to which herd-level characteristics were associated with reproductive performance. Data from herds using artificial insemination (AI) in the Swedish Official Milk Recording Scheme that had more than 45 cows were included in the study (total of 2,728 herds). Reproductive performance was measured as the average for each herd for the calving interval, calving to first AI interval, calving to last AI interval, number of AI per animal submitted for AI, and culling attributed to reproductive problems. Herds with mainly Swedish Holstein cows had longer calving intervals, calving to first AI, and calving to last AI compared with herds with mainly Swedish Red and White cows. Large herds had shorter calving to first AI but a greater number of AI than small herds, whereas small herds had greater culling attributed to reproductive problems than large herds. Low-yielding herds had longer calving intervals, calving to first AI, and calving to last AI and had greater culling attributed to reproductive problems than high-yielding herds, whereas herds with high milk yields had a greater number of AI than low-yielding herds. Herds with automatic milking systems had shorter calving intervals, calving to first AI, and calving to last AI and had lesser odds for culling attributed to reproductive problems when compared with herds with ordinary pipeline milking systems. Herds that used Advanced Feed Advisory Services had shorter calving to first AI but a greater number of AI and greater culling attributed to reproductive problems. Herds using TMR had longer calving intervals and calving to last AI than herds that did not. Herds with tie stalls had longer calving intervals, calving to first AI, and calving to last AI, and organic herds had shorter calving intervals, calving to first AI, and calving to last AI compared with conventional herds. We found that herds with do-it-yourself inseminations had longer calving intervals and calving to first AI. Our study showed numerous associations between herd characteristics and reproductive performance. When allocating advisory service resources to improve reproductive performance, the focus should be on herd characteristics that are easy to influence, such as TMR and do-it-yourself inseminations.     

The extent that certain dairy farmer attitudes and behaviors are associated with farm business profitability

The way in which farm managers' attitudes, personality, behavior, values, and sociodemographic characteristics influence farm business performance is, at best, only partially understood. The study reported here expands on this understanding by analyzing the attitudes and personal attributes of 80 dairy farmers in Great Britain in relation to the profitability over 3 yr of their farm businesses. Business goals, temperament, purchasing behavior, and having a growth mindset toward the business were found to be associated with profitability. A linear regression model consisting of 5 variables related to the above was presented that predicts 34% of the observed variation in profitability. Each of these variables were questions related to the participants' personal attitudes or beliefs. Other assessed variables, such as specific husbandry behaviors or practices, or management practices and sociodemographic characteristics, did not warrant inclusion in the final model. These results uniquely contribute to understanding how the attitudes, personality, behaviors, and attributes of dairy farmers are associated with, and thus likely to influence, the profitability of their farm businesses.     

Evaluation of effects of metritis management in a complex dairy herd health management program

Evaluating the effects of all interventions in a dairy herd, including the effects of various herd health management programs (HHMP), is highly relevant. A traditional randomized controlled trial is the gold standard but is likely practically impossible or prohibitively expensive to use for a general evaluation of a HHMP. Generalizability may also be poor because of the dynamics of the production contexts. In this study, we demonstrate an approach for evaluating the effects of an HHMP in the field, specifying an intervention theory for an ongoing HHMP in the context of the Danish dairy industry. As an example, we suggest one coherent analytical approach for studying the possible effects on milk production of systematic postpartum examinations of vaginal discharge, which is supposed to improve detection and treatment of metritis or endometritis. This routine is one component of the HHMP. The data consisted of 121 herds and 76,953 lactations over a 15-yr period. For parity group 1, the negative effects of metritis (despite treatment) on 305-d milk production after a normal calving were reduced by 116 kg of energy-corrected milk after enrollment in the HHMP. For parity group 2 and parity group >2, enrollment in the HHMP resulted in a 129-kg and an 80-kg energy-corrected milk yield increase in milk production, respectively. The results indicate that effects of the HHMP existed, which were mediated through improved metritis detection. This study demonstrates the importance of a clear-cut intervention theory, although even with a theory, the research question can be too herd and context specific. In such a case, a within-herd randomized controlled trial study design seems to be the only way to achieve a valid result for a given herd, and acquiring valid results from an observational multi-herd study will be very difficult.     

Associations between nondietary factors and dairy herd performance

Forty-seven dairy herds (approximately 3,129 lactating cows) from northeast of Spain that were offering exactly the same lactating ration were surveyed to determine the effect of nondietary factors on herd performance. The survey collected information on the profile of the owners (their future intentions, the number of workers, and time devoted to the enterprise), information regarding the animals (reproductive performance, incidence of pathology, culling rate, etc.), information on the facilities (number of feeders, waters, stalls, cleanliness, etc.) and information on management practices (numbers of daily milkings, feed deliveries, feed push-ups, cleaning frequency, etc.). In addition, the chemical quality of drinking water from each dairy enterprise was determined. Also, amount of feed delivered to each herd, daily total milk production, and milk quality were obtained for each herd for a period of 8 mo before the fulfillment of the survey. Mortality rate of calves tended to be lesser in herds that weaned progressively than in those that weaned abruptly. Age at first calving was negatively correlated with level of milk production (mainly due to the type of heifer rearing system used). Culling rate tended to be lower in herds that used a close-up ration than in those that did not. Using gloves and paper towels (instead of cloth towels) tended to reduce the somatic cell count in milk. Concentration of calcium in the drinking water tended to be negatively correlated with the number of days open and with the proportion of cows culled due to infertility problems. Despite that the 47 herds fed the same ration and shared a similar genetic base, average milk production per cow ranged from 20.6 to 33.8 kg/d. A positive relationship (r = 0.57) between the number of stalls per cow and milk production was found. The most important nondietary factors that affected milk production in these dairy herds were age at first calving, presence or absence of feed refusals, number of free stalls per lactating cow, and whether feed was pushed up in the feed bunk. These factors accounted for more than 50% of the observed variation, not attributable to the diet, in milk yield.     

Effect of human-animal relationship and management on udder health in Swiss dairy herds

In a cross-sectional study, we investigated the effects of human-animal interactions and management factors on udder health in 46 Swiss dairy herds living in loose-housing systems on farms that participated in the Swiss dairy farm network “pro-Q.” The human-animal relationship was measured by observing milkers’ behavior, cows’ behavior during milking, and cows’ avoidance distance in the barn. Management factors were assessed by questionnaire-guided interviews and observations. Udder health was evaluated using indicators that were calculated from milk recording data over a period of 1 yr before assessment: (1) average somatic cell scores (SCS) per herd and (2) incidence of new infections per herd (NEWINF); and indicators that were calculated from quarter milk samples of all lactating cows at the time of assessment: (3) prevalence of quarters with elevated somatic cell counts (>100,000 cells/mL; %Q>100) and (4) prevalence of mastitis quarters (>100,000 cells/mL and culturally positive; %Qmast). After univariate preselection of associated factors, multivariable linear regression models were calculated at the herd level and a multilevel regression model was calculated at the herd and cow levels for SCS. Among all of the human-animal relationship factors, the most dominant predictor for SCS, %Q>100, and %Qmast was the percentage of positive interactions of milkers with the cows in relation to all of their interactions during milking. Furthermore, a higher prevalence of fearful cows in the herd (with an avoidance distance >1 m) was associated with a higher %Q>100. In herds with a higher NEWINF, incidents of cows kicking during milking occurred more frequently. Concerning management as well as farm and herd characteristics, the following mastitis risk factors were found: (1) breed, especially Holstein with regard to SCS, NEWINF, and %Qmast; (2) high age in terms of lactation number with regard to SCS and %Qmast; (3) high amount of new infections of a cow over 1 yr with regard to SCS; (4) air-adsorption during application of teat-cups with regard to NEWINF; (5) lack of separation of diseased cows with regard to NEWINF; and (6) ample dimensions of lying places with regard to %Qmast. The results suggest that the human-animal relationship is relevant for udder health, especially for cows’ reactions to infections expressed as somatic cell count levels. Risk of infection itself appears to be mainly influenced by management factors. Hence, the human-animal relationship may be considered in extension concerning preventive mastitis control.     

Technical indicators of financial performance in the dairy herd

Monte Carlo simulation was used to predict the long-term financial performance related to the technical performance of dairy herds. The indicators addressed were derived from data collected routinely in the herd. They indicated technical performance that can be affected by the farmer or the consultant, and they were derived from expected cause-effect relations between technical performance and financial performance at the herd level. The study included the indicators shape of lactation curve, reproduction efficiency, heifer management, variation between cows in lactation curve persistency, mortality in cows and calves, dynamics of body condition, and somatic cell counts. Each indicator was defined by 2 or 3 levels, and 2- and 3-factor interactions were included in the simulation experiment, which included 72 scenarios. Each scenario was replicated 200 times, and the resulting gross margin per cow was analyzed as the measure of financial performance. The potential effects of the selected indicators on the gross margin were estimated by means of an ANOVA. The final model allowed estimation of the financial value of specific changes within the key performance indicators. This study indicated that improving the shape of the herd-level lactation curve by 1 quartile was associated with an increase in gross margin of €227 per cow year. This represents 53% of the additional available gross margin associated with all the management changes included in the study. The improved herd-level lactation curve increased the gross margin 2.6 times more than improved reproduction efficiency, which again increased the gross margin 2.6 to 5.9 times more than improved management related to heifers, body condition score, mortality, and somatic cell counts. These results were implemented in a simple “metamodel” that used data extracted from ordinary management software to predict herd-specific financial performance related to major management changes. The metamodel was derived from systematic experiments with a complex simulation model that was used directly for advanced herd-specific decision support. We demonstrated the use of these key performance indicators to forecast the financial consequences of different “what-if” herd management options, with emphasis on herd health economics.     

Understanding the adoption of smartphone apps in dairy herd management

The number of decision support tools available to farmers, including dairy herd management smartphone apps, has been steadily increasing. The existing literature does not cover topics concerning the adoption and use of herd management smartphone apps or which specific functions of such apps are perceived as most useful by dairy farmers. It is unclear whether technology adoption can only be explained by economic reasoning, because the beliefs about a technology also play a role in decision-making. Therefore, this study seeks to determine whether an extended technology acceptance model can explain adoption and use of herd management smartphone apps. Results about the adoption and use of dairy herd management smartphone apps are derived from an online survey conducted in 2018 with 280 German dairy farmers. To model farmers' frequency of use of herd management smartphone apps, we applied partial least squares structural equation modeling and an ordered logit model. Our results show that 93% of the dairy farmers in our sample use a smartphone and 61% already use a herd management smartphone app. Daily use is reported by 38% of the adopters. Dairy farmers rated functions related to the observation of animal health, reproduction management, and data gathering as most useful, which should be in focus by developers and providers for future development. The key attitudinal components of the technology acceptance model, namely perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness, both positively influence the intention to use such apps. This ultimately has a positive effect on the actual usage behavior. Besides other factors, dairy farmers' education and knowledge of herd management smartphone apps have a positive effect on perceived ease of use. Our model explains 33% of the variance in the actual usage behavior related to herd management smartphone apps. Because perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness positively influence the intention to use such apps and ultimately the actual usage behavior, developers and providers should highlight the benefits of using herd management smartphone apps and also keep the interface of the apps as simple as possible.     

To change or not to change? Veterinarian and farmer perceptions of relational factors influencing the enactment of veterinary advice on dairy farms in the United Kingdom

Achieving herd health and welfare improvement increasingly relies on cattle veterinarians to train and advise farmers, placing veterinary interactions at the heart of knowledge exchange. Cattle veterinarians recognize their influence and the need to be proactive advisors but struggle with acting upon this awareness in daily practice, reporting a need to enhance their advisory approach to inspire farmer behavior change. Understanding how veterinarian-farmer interactions positively or negatively influence the enactment of change on farm is therefore essential to support the cattle veterinary profession. This paper adopts a qualitative approach to conceptualize how and under what circumstances veterinary advice has the potential to support and inspire farmer engagement with behavior change on the UK dairy farm. Fourteen UK dairy farms were recruited to take part in a qualitative study involving research observation of a typical advisory consultation between veterinarian and farmer (n = 14) followed by separate, in-depth interviews with the farmer(s) and their respective veterinarian. Interview data were organized using a template coding method and analyzed thematically. While accuracy of veterinary advisory content was valued, it was a relational context of trust, shared veterinarian-farmer understanding, and meaningful interpretation of advice at a local (farmer) level that was most likely to enact change. Critically, these relational factors were reported to work together synergistically; a trusting relationship was an essential, but not necessarily sufficient, component to create a culture of change. Findings suggest that cattle veterinarians may benefit from tailoring advisory services to the farmer's specific world view, facilitated by a shared understanding of the farmer's immediate and long-term motivational drivers. In consequence, cattle veterinarians seeking to positively engage farmers in advisory interactions could consider a focus on farmer priorities, motivations, and goals as paramount to frame and inform advisory messages. This explicit collaborative communication encourages the selection of appropriate and timely veterinary expertise, leading to better integration and adoption of advice on farm given enhanced advisory relevance for farmers' unique circumstances. This farmer-centered approach, involving active co-creation of plans between individuals, is critical for engagement and commitment when tackling complex problems.     

Novel approaches to assess the quality of fertility data stored in dairy herd management software

Scientific journals and popular press magazines are littered with articles in which the authors use data from dairy herd management software. Almost none of such papers include data cleaning and data quality assessment in their study design despite this being a very critical step during data mining. This paper presents 2 novel data cleaning methods that permit identification of animals with good and bad data quality. The first method is a deterministic or rule-based data cleaning method. Reproduction and mutation or life-changing events such as birth and death were converted to a symbolic (alphabetical letter) representation and split into triplets (3-letter code). The triplets were manually labeled as physiologically correct, suspicious, or impossible. The deterministic data cleaning method was applied to assess the quality of data stored in dairy herd management from 26 farms enrolled in the herd health management program from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Ghent University, Belgium. In total, 150,443 triplets were created, 65.4% were labeled as correct, 17.4% as suspicious, and 17.2% as impossible. The second method, a probabilistic method, uses a machine learning algorithm (random forests) to predict the correctness of fertility and mutation events in an early stage of data cleaning. The prediction accuracy of the random forests algorithm was compared with a classical linear statistical method (penalized logistic regression), outperforming the latter substantially, with a superior receiver operating characteristic curve and a higher accuracy (89 vs. 72%). From those results, we conclude that the triplet method can be used to assess the quality of reproduction data stored in dairy herd management software and that a machine learning technique such as random forests is capable of predicting the correctness of fertility data.     

Relationships between management factors in dairy production systems and mental health of farm managers in Japan

To facilitate sustainable dairy farming, it is essential to assess and support the mental health of dairy farm workers, which is affected more than that of workers in other industries, as indicated by the relatively few studies to date. In addition, the limited investigations on mental health in dairy workers minimize the opportunities to suggest practical approaches of improvement of their mental health. Therefore, further data acquisition and analysis is required. In the present study, we undertook quantitative surveys on 17 management factors and administered a mental health questionnaire to 81 dairy farm managers (80 male, 1 female) in Hokkaido, northern Japan. The management factors were categorized into 3 groups: production input, production output, and facility indicator; mental health was evaluated based on the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Principal component analysis assigned the factors into 2 groups: intensiveness factors of dairy production systems (PC1: livestock care cost, fat- and protein-corrected milk, stocking density, medical consultation fee per unit time per animal unit, nonfamily wages, fertilizer and pesticide expenses, and net agricultural income ratio) and basic dairy management factors (PC2: net agricultural income ratio, quantity of concentrate feed, and milk quality variable). The depression symptoms of dairy farm managers were not significantly associated with PC1 and milking methods; however, they were significantly negatively associated with PC2, which integrated 3 management factors, including factors related to finances, feeding, and milk quality. According to the findings of the present study, the efforts needed for stable economic farm management, adequate feed supply, and milk quality maintenance may increase the depression levels of dairy farm managers and negatively affect their mental health. These findings could be the basis for future studies on the relationship between the mental health of farm managers and sustainable dairy farm management and production.     

Differences between performance of F1 crossbreds and Holsteins at different production levels

Crossbreeding in dairy cattle has recently become of increased interest. However, farmers in Scandinavian countries are reluctant to implement crossbreeding in their herds, and one reason is the common opinion that only herds at a poor level of management can benefit from crossbreeding. The Danish Cattle Database (SEGES, Aarhus, Denmark) provided data on 14 traits regarding milk yield, udder health, fertility traits, stillbirth, and survival. The data were collected from 103,307 pure Holstein cows and 14,832 F₁ crosses (Holstein dam and Nordic Red sire). The cows were born between 2008 and 2014 and originated from 424 herds that contributed data from at least 5 purebreds and 5 crossbreds across the years. We split the animals into 3 production levels: high, average, and low according to the herd's average production (kg) of 305-d fat plus protein in the given birth year of the cow. We estimated least squares means of breed group (purebred and crossbred) performance within each production level. Crossbred performance in 305-d fat yield in first-parity cows was greater than that of Holstein across all herd production levels; the gain was greater in high- (9 kg more than Holstein) and average-producing herds (7 kg more than Holstein) than in low-producing herds (3 kg more than Holstein). Regardless of production level or parity, crossbreds did not outperform Holstein in terms of 305-d protein yield (0 to 8 kg less). Crossbreds had relatively better udder health than Holstein in both first and second parity (up to 15% less mastitis) within any of the production levels. In terms of fertility, stillbirth, and survival, crossbreds performed better than purebreds, and improved performance was independent of herd production level. We conclude that differences in performance between F₁ crossbreds and Holstein are independent of production level.     

Associations of breed and feeding management with milk production curves at herd level using a random regression test-day model

Earlier studies identified large between-herd variation in estimated lactation curve parameters from test-day milk yield and milk composition records collected in Ragusa province, Italy. The objective of this study was to identify sources of variation able to explain these between-herd differences in milk production curves, by estimating associations of animal breed (Holstein Friesian vs. Brown Swiss), feeding system [separate feeding (SF) vs. total mixed ration (TMR)], and TMR chemical composition on milk and milk components herd curves. Data recorded from 1992 through 2007 for test-day (TD) milk, fat, and protein yields from 1,287,019 records of 148,951 lactations of 51,489 cows in 427 herds were processed using a random regression TD model. Random herd curves (HCUR) for milk, fat, and protein yields were estimated from the model per herd, year, and parity (1, 2, and 3+) using 4-order Legendre polynomials. From March 2006 through December 2007, samples of TMR were collected every 3 mo from 37 farms in Ragusa province. Samples were analyzed for dry matter, ash, crude protein, soluble nitrogen, acid detergent lignin, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, and starch. Traits used to describe milk production curves were peak, days in milk at peak, persistency, and mean. Association of feeding system and animal breed with HCUR traits was investigated using a general mixed model procedure. Association of TMR chemical composition with HCUR traits was investigated using multivariate analysis with regression and stepwise model selection. Results were consistent for all traits and parities. Feeding system was significantly associated with HCUR peak and mean, with higher values for TMR. Animal breed was significantly associated with HCUR persistency, with higher values for Brown Swiss herds. Furthermore, animal breed influenced HCUR peak and mean, with higher values for Holstein Friesian herds. Crude protein had the largest effect on HCUR peak and mean, whereas the interaction between crude protein and dry matter mainly affected persistency. When provided by a national evaluation system, HCUR can be used as an indicator of herd feeding management.     

Interrelationships between herd-level reproductive performance measures based on intervals from initiation of the breeding program in year-round and seasonal calving dairy herds

In year-round calving herds, reproductive performance has traditionally been described in relation to each cow's calving date. This research described reproductive performance in year-round and seasonal calving dairy herds using herd-level measures based on interval from each cow's initiation of breeding program date, and assessed interrelationships between such measures. A large, prospective, single cohort study, implemented in 1997 and 1998, included 29,327 cows from 167 Australian dairy herds. Herd reproductive performance was described using 2 measures of primary importance to herd managers: the proportion of cows that became pregnant by 6 wk after their initiation of breeding program date (6-wk pregnancy rate) and the proportion of cows that were nonpregnant 21 wk after their initiation of breeding program date (21-wk nonpregnancy rate). Measures that contribute to these primary measures (secondary measures) were calculated for each herd for both the first and second 3-wk periods of each cow's breeding program; submission rates were calculated as proportions of cows that were inseminated at least once in the 3-wk period, and conception rates were calculated as the proportions of inseminations in the 3-wk period that resulted in pregnancy. The individual herd was the unit of analysis. The study results indicate that high submission rates are essential if herd reproductive performance is to be achieved. Six-week pregnancy rate was predicted to increase by 6 to 8 percentage points following a 10-percentage-point increase in submission rates in both 3-wk periods, and by 6 to 10 percentage points following a 10-percentage-point increase in conception rates. Submission rates were more variable than conception rates, indicating that managers may be able to achieve large increases in submission rates more easily than substantial increases in conception rates. However, the predicted benefits of increasing submission rates were greatest when conception rates were high and vice versa, highlighting the need to improve both submission and conception rates when both are low. The study results indicate that some herd managers can concurrently achieve high submission and conception rates.