Retaining your high performers: Moderators of the performance–job satisfaction–voluntary turnover relationship.

Two divergent ideas explain the relationship between performance and voluntary turnover. One suggests that higher performing employees, who are rewarded for their superior work product, will desire to remain with an organization that values their performance and will, consequently, be less likely than lower performing employees to voluntarily leave. An alternative idea suggests that higher performing employees, who are more desirable to external companies as a result of their superior work product, will have more external job opportunities and will, consequently, be more likely than their lower performing colleagues to voluntarily leave. The current study evaluated the behaviors and attitudes of 12,545 insurance employees over a 3-year period to examine how these 2 divergent expectations influence the performance–voluntary turnover relationship. Results show that both pay growth and the relevant unemployment rate interact with performance to influence the performance–voluntary turnover relationship and that they work independently of employee job satisfaction influences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affective commitment to the organization: The contribution of perceived organizational support.

Three studies examined the interrelationships among work experiences, perceived organizational support (POS), affective commitment (AC), and employee turnover. Using a diverse sample of 367 employees drawn from a variety of organizations, Study 1 found that POS mediated positive associations of organizational rewards, procedural justice, and supervisor support with AC. Study 2 examined changes of POS and AC in retail employees over a 2-year span (N?=?333) and a 3-year span (N?=?226). POS was positively related to temporal changes in AC, suggesting that POS leads to AC. Study 3 found a negative relationship between POS and subsequent voluntary employee turnover that was mediated by AC in retail employees (N?=?1,124) and in poultry- and feed-processing workers (N?=?262). These results suggest that favorable work conditions operate via POS to increase AC, which, in turn, decreases employee withdrawal behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developing and testing a taxonomy of lateness behavior.

Compared with other physical withdrawal behaviors such as employee turnover and absenteeism, employee lateness has been theoretically neglected. Three categories of lateness behavior (increasing chronic, stable periodic, and unavoidable) were defined on the basis of pattern, frequency, and duration of incidents. Hypothesized antecedents of each lateness category were tested using 2 samples, 353 hospital employees and 402 bank employees. Support was found for the idea that each category exhibits differential relationships to other work behaviors and specific antecedents. Additional empirical results showed that the "never late" subgroup from each sample was significantly different from the lateness subgroups on various antecedents and work behaviors. Results and limitations of the study are further discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance as a moderator of the job satisfaction–turnover relationship.

Examined the effects of job satisfaction and rated job performance on voluntary turnover among 295 hospital employees (approximate average age 35 yrs). Measures of job satisfaction were obtained from Ss, independent performance ratings by superiors were obtained from company records, and voluntary turnover data were collected 1 yr after administration of the questionnaire. With the use of subgroup analysis and moderated regression, it was found that employee performance ratings significantly moderate the job satisfaction–turnover relationship. Results suggest that satisfaction level represents a greater influence for low performers than for high performers on the decision to stay in a job. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Voluntary turnover and job performance: Curvilinearity and the moderating influences of salary growth and promotions.

The relationship between job performance and voluntary employee turnover was investigated for 5,143 exempt employees in a single firm. As hypothesized, support was found for E. F. Jackofsky's (see record 1987-09010-001) curvilinear hypothesis, as turnover was higher for low and high performers than it was for average performers. Two potential moderators of the curvilinearity were examined in an attempt to explain conflicting results in the performance-turnover literature. As predicted, low salary growth and high promotions each produced a more pronounced curvilinear performance-turnover relationship. Most notably, salary growth effects on turnover were greatest for high performers, with high salary growth predicting rather low turnover for these employees, whereas low salary growth predicted extremely high turnover. Additionally, once salary growth was controlled, promotions positively predicted turnover, with poor performer turnover most strongly affected. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology of employee lateness, absence, and turnover: A methodological critique and an empirical study.

Data on organizational commitment, job satisfaction, lateness behavior, unauthorized absence behavior, voluntary employee turnover, and biographical and situational information were obtained for 406 employees of an engineering plant in England. Results suggest the need for examination of the impact of behavior on affect. It is concluded that the generalized notion of "withdrawal" is misleading and that a redirection of research in this area both through methodological improvements and theoretical innovation is needed. (57 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A conceptual and empirical analysis of the cognitive ability–voluntary turnover relationship.

Despite much research into cognitive ability as a selection tool and a separate large literature on the causes of voluntary turnover, little theoretical or empirical work connects the two. We propose that voluntary turnover is also a potentially key outcome of cognitive ability. Incorporating ideas from the person–environment fit literature and those regarding push and pull influences on turnover, we posit a theoretical connection between cognitive ability and voluntary turnover that addresses both why and how voluntary turnover is related to cognitive ability. Integrating data from 3 different sources, our empirical analyses support the theoretical perspective that the relationship between cognitive ability and voluntary turnover depends on the cognitive demands of the job. When the cognitive demands of a job are high, our findings support the hypothesized curvilinear relationship between cognitive ability and voluntary turnover, such that employees of higher and lower cognitive ability are more likely than medium cognitive ability employees to leave voluntarily. With regard to jobs with low cognitive demands, our data are more consistent with a negative linear relationship between cognitive ability and voluntary turnover, such that higher cognitive ability employees are less likely to leave voluntarily. We also examine the role of job satisfaction, finding that job satisfaction is more strongly linked to voluntary turnover in jobs with high cognitive demands. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Application of two neural network paradigms to the study of voluntary employee turnover.

Two neural network paradigms—multilayer perceptron and learning vector quantization—were used to study voluntary employee turnover with a sample of 577 hospital employees. The objectives of the study were twofold. The 1st was to assess whether neural computing techniques offered greater predictive accuracy than did conventional turnover methodologies. The 2nd was to explore whether computer models of turnover based on neural network technologies offered new insights into turnover processes. When compared with logistic regression analysis, both neural network paradigms provided considerably more accurate predictions of turnover behavior, particularly with respect to the correct classification of leavers. In addition, these neural network paradigms captured nonlinear relationships that are relevant for theory development. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of autonomy and empowerment on employee turnover: Test of a multilevel model in teams.

Extending research on voluntary turnover in the team setting, this study adopts a multilevel self-determination theoretical approach to examine the unique roles of individual and social-contextual motivational precursors, autonomy orientation and autonomy support, in reducing team member voluntary turnover. Analysis of multilevel time-lagged data collected from 817 employees on 115 teams indicates that psychological empowerment mediates the main effect of autonomy orientation and the interactive effect of autonomy support and its differentiation on a team member's voluntary turnover. The findings have meaningful implications for the turnover and self-determination literatures as well as for managers who endeavor to prevent voluntary turnover in teams. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

An evaluation of precursors of hospital employee turnover.

To evaluate a heuristic model of employee turnover, survey data were collected from 203 hospital employees. The questionnaire included measures of general and job facet satisfaction, thoughts about quitting, the intention to quit, the perceived probability of finding another job, and biographical information. Turnover data were collected 47 wks later. Zero-order correlations between job satisfaction and turnover, age–tenure and turnover, satisfaction and thinking of quitting, and intention to quit and turnover were consistent with previous research. When a simplified heuristic model of the employee withdrawal decision process was subjected to regression analysis, significant coefficients were evident from job satisfaction to thinking of quitting and intention to search, but not to actual turnover. As hypothesized, intention to quit exhibited the only significant coefficient with actual attrition. Results support the primacy of intentions in the withdrawal process and serve to further demonstrate the need for models of the turnover process more complete than the traditional dissatisfaction–turnover model. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived supervisor support: Contributions to perceived organizational support and employee retention.

Three studies investigated the relationships among employees' perception of supervisor support (PSS), perceived organizational support (POS), and employee turnover. Study 1 found, with 314 employees drawn from a variety of organizations, that PSS was positively related to temporal change in POS, suggesting that PSS leads to POS. Study 2 established, with 300 retail sales employees, that the PSS-POS relationship increased with perceived supervisor status in the organization. Study 3 found, with 493 retail sales employees, evidence consistent with the view that POS completely mediated a negative relationship between PSS and employee turnover. These studies suggest that supervisors, to the extent that they are identified with the organization, contribute to POS and, ultimately, to job retention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Turnover functionality versus turnover frequency: A note on work attitudes and organizational effectiveness.

Tested whether work attitudes, widely praised as predictors of turnover frequency (i.e., the number of separations), are also useful predictors of turnover functionality (i.e., the nature of separations). Measures on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job involvement, motivation to turnover, and turnover frequency and functionality were obtained from 112 retail salespersons. Results indicate that (a) the traditional measure of turnover frequency overstates the detrimental effects of turnover on organizational effectiveness, in that 53% of the turnover was functional and (b) turnover functionality, which emphasizes the performance levels of stayers and leavers, is unrelated to work attitudes. Findings suggest that organizations should not devote resources to programs designed to improve employee attitudes, based solely on the expectation that decreasing turnover frequency will result in beneficial consequences. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Antecedents and outcomes of organizational support for development: The critical role of career opportunities.

This study examines antecedents and behavioral outcomes of employees' perceptions of organizational support for development. We first propose that employees' past participation in formal developmental activities and experience with developmental relationships positively relate to their perceptions of organizational support for development. We then propose that perceived career opportunity within the organization moderates the relationship between organizational support for development and employee performance and turnover. Using a sample of 264 exempt-level employees and their supervisors, we found that participation in training classes, leader–member exchange, and career mentoring were each positively related to employees' perceptions of organizational support for development. We also found support for the moderator hypotheses. Specifically, development support positively related to job performance, but only when perceived career opportunity within the organization was high. Further, development support was associated with reduced voluntary turnover when perceived career opportunity was high, but it was associated with increased turnover when perceived career opportunity was low. Our study demonstrates that social exchange and career motivation theory work together to explain when and how employees' perceptions of organizational support for development relate to turnover and job performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Employee reactions to workspace characteristics.

We investigated the independent and joint effects of four workspace characteristics (social density, room darkness, number of enclosures, and interpersonal distance) on three employee reactions: turnover, satisfaction, and withdrawal from the office during discretionary periods. A total of 109 clerical employees from 19 offices of a large university participated in the research. Results showed that the independent and joint effects of the workspace characteristics accounted for 24% of the variance in employee turnover, 31% of the variance in work satisfaction, and 34% of the variance in discretionary withdrawal. Moreover, the four-way interaction term involving the workspace characteristics contributed significantly to each of the reaction measures, suggesting that employees were most likely to withdraw from offices and to experience dissatisfaction when the following conditions were present: the office was rated as dark, few enclosures surrounded employees' work areas, employees were seated close to one another, and many employees occupied the office. The implications of the findings for future research on workspace design are discussed. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Voluntary turnover and alternative job opportunities.

Models of voluntary turnover specify important roles for both general labor-market conditions and labor-market perceptions. Although there is consistent support for the role of general labor-market conditions, evidence on perceptions is mixed. In a national sample of young adults, both factors were related to voluntary turnover. However, the two constructs were not closely linked, possibly because labor-market perceptions are based on incomplete information. Thus, for example, despite poor general labor-market conditions, an employee may perceive ease of movement to be high, which contributes to the employee's intention to quit. Yet, the employee may not actually quit because the unfavorable general labor-market conditions act to limit the number of alternative job openings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unit-level voluntary turnover rates and customer service quality: Implications of group cohesiveness, newcomer concentration, and size.

Despite substantial growth in the service industry and emerging work on turnover consequences, little research examines how unit-level turnover rates affect essential customer-related outcomes. The authors propose an operational disruption framework to explain why voluntary turnover impairs customers’ service quality perceptions. On the basis of a sample of 75 work units and data from 5,631 employee surveys, 59,602 customer surveys, and organizational records, results indicate that unit-level voluntary turnover rates are negatively related to service quality perceptions. The authors also examine potential boundary conditions related to the disruption framework. Of 3 moderators studied (group cohesiveness, group size, and newcomer concentration), results show that turnover’s negative effects on service quality are more pronounced in larger units and in those with a greater concentration of newcomers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Countering the Negative Effects of Job Insecurity Through Participative Decision Making: Lessons From the Demand-Control Model.

This study examined the effectiveness of increased organizational participative decision making in attenuating the negative consequences of job insecurity. Data were collected from 807 employees in 6 different companies. Analyses suggest that job insecurity is related to lower coworker, work, and supervisor satisfaction and higher turnover intentions and work withdrawal behaviors. However, employees with greater participative decision-making opportunities reported fewer negative consequences of job insecurity compared with employees with fewer participative decision-making opportunities. Results are interpreted using the demand-control model and suggest that organizations that allow greater employee participative decision making may experience fewer negative side effects from today's rising levels of employee job insecurity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Employee customer orientation in manufacturing organizations: Joint influences of customer proximity and the senior leadership team.

Pursuing a customer-focused strategy in manufacturing organizations requires employees across functions to embrace the importance of understanding customer needs and to align their everyday efforts with the goal of satisfying and retaining customers. Little prior research has examined what factors influence employee customer orientation in manufacturing settings. Drawing on the attraction-selection-attrition model, upper-echelons theory, and contingency theories of leadership, this study investigated the joint influences of functional roles' proximity to external customers and the senior leadership team's customer orientation on employee customer orientation. Hierarchical linear modeling results based on data obtained from 4,299 employees and 403 senior leaders from 42 facilities of a global manufacturer operating in 16 countries revealed that employees occupying customer-contact roles had the highest level of customer orientation, followed by employees occupying production roles, and then by those in support roles. In addition, there was a positive relationship between the senior leadership team's customer orientation and employee customer orientation for all 3 functional roles. The positive relationship between the senior leadership team and employee customer orientation was the strongest for employees in support roles, suggesting that lower levels of proximity to external customers may create a greater need for leadership in developing employees' customer-oriented attitudes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reducing Voluntary, Avoidable Turnover Through Selection.

The authors investigated the efficacy of several variables used to predict voluntary, organizationally avoidable turnover even before the employee is hired. Analyses conducted on applicant data collected in 2 separate organizations (N = 445) confirmed that biodata, clear-purpose attitudes and intentions, and disguised-purpose dispositional retention scales predicted voluntary, avoidable turnover (rs ranged from -.16 to -.22, R = .37, adjusted R = .33). Results also revealed that biodata scales and disguised-purpose retention scales added incremental validity, whereas clear-purpose retention scales did not explain significant incremental variance in turnover beyond what was explained by biodata and disguised-purpose scales. Furthermore, disparate impact (subgroup differences on race, sex, and age) was consistently small (average d = 0.12 when the majority group scored higher than the minority group). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the job search–turnover relationship: The role of embeddedness, job satisfaction, and available alternatives.

This study examined factors that may help explain under what conditions employee job search effort may most strongly (or weakly) predict subsequent turnover. As predicted, the job search–turnover relationship was stronger when employees had lower levels of job embeddedness and job satisfaction and higher levels of available alternatives. These findings suggest that there may be a number of factors interacting to influence employees' turnover decisions, indicating greater complexity to the process than described in prominent sequential turnover models. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)