An experimental study of three response modes in social influence situations.

A test is provided of Willis' conceptual framework, which specifies 3 response modes in a social influence situation. These are referred to as conformity, independence, and anticonformity. An individual can exhibit, over the course of several trials, any combination of independence or net conformity, i.e., conformity minus anticonformity. The object of this experimental demonstration was to manipulate simultaneously a number of independent variables so as to elicit 1 of the 3 basic modes of reacting from each of the 3 experimental groups. Conditions for 1 group were designed to maximize conformity, those of the 2nd to maximize independence, and those of the 3rd to maximize anticonformity. The prediction that these reactions can be brought under experimental control and can be substantially and differentially produced in the laboratory was confirmed. Differences among experimental groups were sizable as measured either by overall differences in independence and net conformity or by movement scores. In the case of the condition designed to maximize independence behavior, the theoretical limit was closely approached. For the conformity and anticonformity groups, the respective limits were less closely approached, but magnitudes of movement towards these limits were larger than in the case of the independence group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of multisource feedback and a feedback facilitator on the influence behavior of managers toward subordinates.

The authors compared a feedback workshop with both a no-feedback control group and a comparison group of managers who received a feedback report but no feedback workshop. The multisource feedback was based on ratings of a manager's influence behavior by subordinates, peers, and bosses. Managers in the feedback workshop increased their use of some core influence tactics with subordinates, whereas there was no change in behavior for the control group or for the comparison group. The feedback was perceived to be more useful by managers who received it in a workshop with a facilitator than by managers who received only a printed feedback report. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compensatory reaction to angularly displaced visual feedback in behavior.

Compensatory reaction to displaced visual feedback is investigated by requiring S to operationally negate the effects of the feedback displacement by adjusting the direction of response. In this experiment, such compensatory behavior has been compared with direct reactions to the same conditions of angularly displaced vision. As predicted from systematic theory, the efficacy of the compensatory response is generally less than that of direct reaction to displaced vision, both initially and finally in learning. The results also show that learning to respond to displaced visual feedback is specific to the direction and type of compensatory and direct modes of response used. The methods and results of the experiment illustrate how the techniques of displaced and delayed sensory-feedback analysis, using scientific television instrumentation, can be applied to study of the general problems of compensatory behavior, as used in different patterns of adaptive behavior and in response to machine systems of specialized design. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of negative feedback on tension and subsequent performance: The main and interactive effects of goal content and conscientiousness.

The purpose of this experiment was to examine the interplay of goal content, conscientiousness, and tension on performance following negative feedback. Undergraduate students were assigned either a learning or performance goal and then were provided with false feedback indicating very poor performance on the task they performed. After assessing tension, participants performed the task again with the same learning or performance goal. A mediated moderation model was tested, and results were supportive of our hypotheses. Specifically, individuals assigned a learning goal experienced less tension and performed better following negative feedback than individuals assigned a performance goal. Individuals high in conscientiousness experienced greater tension than individuals low in conscientiousness. Conscientiousness and goal content interacted in relating to both tension and performance, with tension as a mediator, such that high conscientiousness amplified the detrimental effect of a performance goal on tension following negative feedback leading to lower performance. High conscientiousness facilitated performance for participants with a learning goal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attributions of the "causes" of group performance as an alternative explanation of the relationship between organizational citizenship behavior and organizational performance.

The purpose of this study was to examine the possibility that feedback regarding team performance may influence team members' reports of organizational citizenship behaviors. 95 teams of business students (N=412) participated in a labor-scheduling simulation over a local area network. Teams were provided with false negative, false positive, or neutral feedback regarding their performance. Results support the hypothesis that the perception of 2 forms of organizational citizenship behavior (helping behavior and civic virtue) in work groups may, in part, be a function of the nature of the performance feedback that group members receive. However, negative feedback appears to play a more critical role than positive feedback in this attributional process. Possible reasons for these findings, as well as their implications, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dynamics of disruption from altered auditory feedback: Further evidence for a dissociation of sequencing and timing.

Three experiments were designed to test whether perception and action are coordinated in a way that distinguishes sequencing from timing (Pfordresher, 2003). Each experiment incorporated a trial design in which altered auditory feedback (AAF) was presented for varying lengths of time and then withdrawn. Experiments 1 and 2 included AAF that resulted in action-effect asynchronies (delayed auditory feedback) during simple tapping (Experiment 1) and melody production (Experiment 2). Asynchronous AAF immediately slowed production; this effect then diminished rapidly after removal of AAF. By contrast, sequential alterations of feedback pitch during melody production (Experiment 3) had an effect that varied over successive presentations of AAF (by increasing error rates) that lasted after its withdrawal. The presence of auditory feedback after withdrawal of asynchronous AAF (Experiments 1 and 2) led to overcompensation of timing, whereas the presence of auditory feedback did not influence performance after withdrawal of AAF in Experiment 3. Based on these results, we suggest that asynchronous AAF perturbs the phase of an internal timekeeper, whereas alterations to feedback pitch over time degrade the internal representation of sequence structure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A randomized, controlled trial of adding expired carbon monoxide feedback to brief stop smoking advice: Evaluation of cognitive and behavioral effects.

Objective: To determine the effect of adding biomarker feedback (expired air carbon monoxide) to standard quit advice on cognitive antecedents of behavior change and smoking cessation and to identify potential effect moderators and mediators. Design: Smokers (N = 160) were randomized to a control (quit advice plus leaflet) or an intervention condition (as control group plus carbon-monoxide level feedback). Cognitive measures were assessed immediately after the intervention and behavioral measures at 6 months' follow-up. Main Outcome Measures: Primary outcome measures were threat and efficacy appraisal, fear arousal, and intention to stop smoking. Secondary outcome measures were quit attempts within the last 6 months and 7-day point prevalence abstinence. Results: Threat appraisal was significantly enhanced in the intervention compared with the control group, t(158) = 2.29, p = .023, as was intention to stop smoking in the next month, t(151) = 2.9, p = .004. However, this effect on intention to stop smoking was short-lived. Groups did not differ in terms of quit attempts or abstinence at follow-up, but the intervention increased the likelihood of cessation in smokers with higher self-efficacy, χ2(1) = 5.82, p = .016. Conclusions: Carbon-monoxide level feedback enhances the effect of brief quit advice on cognitive antecedents of behavior change and smoking cessation rates but further research is required to confirm the longevity of this effect and its applicability to smokers with low self-efficacy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of videotaped feedback in altering interpersonal perceptions of married couples: A therapy analogue.

38 young married college-student couples participated in a therapy analog study designed to assess the effect of focused videotaped and verbal feedback, compared with that of verbal feedback only or of no feedback, as a means of altering interpersonal perception. The experiment followed a pretest-experimental-treatment-posttest design, with change measured by the perspectives of interactional behavior (using a modification and combination of Leary's Interpersonal Checklist and Laing's interpersonal perception method). Results indicate that videotaped feedback altered perceptions to a significantly greater degree than either of the other 2 conditions, with no significant differences between the effect of verbal feedback and no feedback. The changes occurred in perspectives pertaining to the self but not those pertaining to spouse. Implications and limitations of the results as they relate to marital and family therapy are discussed. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Are the Characteristics of Narrative Comments Related to Improvement in Multirater Feedback Ratings Over Time?

Researchers have paid almost no attention to the narrative comments that typically accompany multirater feedback reports despite the fact that both anecdotal and empirical evidence suggest that feedback recipients devote considerable attention to such comments. The authors examined improvement in upward feedback ratings over a 1-year period for 176 managers as a function of (a) the number of narrative comments each manager received, (b) whether those comments were favorable (vs. unfavorable), and (c) whether the comments were behavior/task focused (vs. trait focused). The authors found that managers who received a small number of unfavorable, behavior/task-focused comments improved more than did other managers, whereas managers who received a large number of unfavorable, behavior/task-focused comments declined more than did other managers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of orthopedic disability on conformity behavior.

An experiment was conducted to measure the effect of severe orthopedic disability upon conformity behavior. The purpose was to determine whether or not individuals who were disabled would yield more to unanimously incorrect confederate opinion than would able-bodied men. The Asch technique was employed with 2 control groups and 2 experimental groups. The control groups were exclusively able-bodied or disabled; the experimental groups employed confederates whose condition contrasted with that of the naive Ss. The data indicate disabled men yield less to able-bodied confederates than they do to disabled confederates. There was more conformity in homogeneous groups than nonhomogeneous groups. (18 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Feedback and accuracy of clinical predictions.

The investigation stems from a recommendation by Holt that clinicians should have training which makes it possible for them to validate themselves as clinical predictors in much the same way as tests are cross-validated. 3 experiments were devised to provide feedback concerning accuracy of predictions in the expectations that feedback could be used to improve performance. The "clinicians" studied were undergraduate students, and the prediction task involved interpretation of short sentence-completion protocols. In all 3 experiments there was evidence for the superior performance of those Ss who received feedback, but the bulk of the evidence suggested that the feedback effect was attributable to enhancement of motivation of the Ss rather than to specific informational value. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Altering misperception of sleep in insomnia: Behavioral experiment versus verbal feedback.

Forty-eight individuals with insomnia were asked to wear an actigraph and keep a sleep diary for 2 nights. On the following day, half were shown the discrepancy between the data recorded on the actigraph and their sleep diary via a behavioral experiment, whereas the other half were told of the discrepancy verbally. Participants were then asked to monitor their sleep for 2 further nights to index the effect of these interventions. Although both reduced sleep misperception, the behavioral experiment (effect size: 0.79 to 1.25) led to greater reduction in self-reported sleep impairment, insomnia symptoms, and sleep-related anxiety and distress compared with verbal feedback (effect size: -0.06 to 0.31). Further, the patients regarded the behavioral experiment as a more beneficial and acceptable intervention strategy than verbal feedback. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactive self-monitoring: The effects of response desirability, goal setting, and feedback.

Examined the reactive effect of self-monitoring in 3 experiments with a total of 250 undergraduates. In each experiment, performance on a sentence-construction task, the dependent measure, was determined immediately before and after the experimental manipulations were presented. Exp I evaluated the effect of valence or social desirability of the behavior and self-monitoring and being observed by another person; and Exp III replicated the effect of performance standard and also evaluated the role of response feedback. Results indicate that (a) self-monitoring was reactive, (b) the valence given to the target response determined the direction of behavior change, (c) self-monitoring and response valence were necessary but not sufficient conditions for behavior change, (d) monitoring one's own behavior or being monitored by someone else were equally reactive, (e) providing a performance goal or feedback augmented the reactive effects of self-monitoring, and (f) the act of self-recording led to behavior change. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Feedback Specificity, Learning Opportunities, and Learning.

Although increasing feedback specificity is generally beneficial for immediate performance, it can undermine certain aspects of the learning needed for later, more independent performance. The results of the present transfer experiment demonstrate that the effects of increasing feedback specificity on learning depended on what was to be learned, and these effects were partially mediated through the opportunities to learn how to respond to different task conditions during practice. More specific feedback was beneficial for learning how to respond to good performance and detrimental for learning how to respond to poor performance. The former relationship was partially mediated by feedback specificity's effect on learning opportunities during practice. The results have implications for designing feedback interventions and training to maximize the learning of various aspects of a task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dismantling motivational interviewing and feedback for college drinkers: A randomized clinical trial.

Motivational interviewing (MI) is a counseling style that has been shown to reduce heavy drinking among college students. To date, all studies of MI among college students have used a format that includes a feedback profile delivered in an MI style. This study was a dismantling trial of MI and feedback among heavy-drinking college students. After an initial screen, 279 heavy-drinking students were randomized to (a) Web feedback only, (b) a single MI session without feedback, (c) a single MI session with feedback, or (d) assessment only. At 6 months, MI with feedback significantly reduced drinking, as compared with assessment only (effect size = .54), MI without feedback (effect size = .63), and feedback alone (effect size = .48). Neither MI alone nor feedback alone differed from assessment only. Neither sex, race or ethnicity, nor baseline severity of drinking moderated the effect of the intervention. Norm perceptions mediated the effect of the intervention on drinking. MI with feedback appears to be a robust intervention for reducing drinking and may be mediated by changes in normative perceptions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of person-group relationships on conformity processes.

"An experiment was designed to test hypotheses derived from assuming distinctive processes called social reality and group locomotion, each of which generates forces to conform under specified conditions. Four types of person-group relations were created by experimentally varying subject's attraction to the group and acceptance as a member. A modification of Asch's line problem and experimental situation was used to test the conformity behavior of subjects. The results are in accord with hypotheses advanced about the conformity behavior of highly accepted persons, thus supplying evidence in favor of the assumptions about social reality and group locomotion processes." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Delayed auditory feedback and movement.

It is well known that timing of rhythm production is disrupted by delayed auditory feedback (DAF), and that disruption varies with delay length. We tested the hypothesis that disruption depends on the state of the movement trajectory at the onset of DAF. Participants tapped isochronous rhythms at a rate specified by a metronome while hearing DAF (for piano tones) of differing lengths. Motion capture was used to analyze movement trajectories. Mean Inter-Response Intervals (IRIs) varied as an approximately sinusoidal function of feedback condition, with DAF causing slowed production for shorter delays and speeded production for faster delays. Motion capture analyses revealed that finger velocity at the time of DAF predicted the effect of DAF on mean IRI whereas finger position predicted the variability of IRIs. A second experiment in which participants were instructed to vary the timing of peak finger height confirmed that the effect of DAF on timing variability is directly influenced by the finger trajectory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individuality and group formation: The role of independence and differentiation.

This research examined the interplay of group formation and individualization processes with a particular emphasis on minority and majority groups. First, a 2-component theory of individuality that distinguishes between individuality as independence and as differentiation from other people was presented, tested, and cross-validated in 2 questionnaire studies. Next, a pilot experiment provided first support for the working assumption that the salience of the differentiation or independence components of individuality differentially affect minority and majority group formation. Finally, the main experiment demonstrated that these individuality effects on minority and majority group formation are due largely to a differential orientation toward either intergroup or intragroup comparisons. This experiment also uncovered a unique effect of relative in-group size, but this effect was limited to similarity-based group formation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning from feedback: Spacing and the delay–retention effect.

Most modern research on the effects of feedback during learning has assumed that feedback is an error correction mechanism. Recent studies of feedback-timing effects have suggested that feedback might also strengthen initially correct responses. In an experiment involving cued recall of trivia facts, we directly tested several theories of feedback-timing effects and also examined the effects of restudy and retest trials following immediate and delayed feedback. Results were not consistent with theories assuming that the only function of feedback is to correct initial errors but instead supported a theoretical account assuming that delaying feedback strengthens initially correct responses due to the spacing of encoding opportunities: Delaying feedback increased the probability of correct response perseveration on the final retention test but had minimal effects on error correction or error perseveration probabilities. In a 2nd experiment, the effects of varying the lags between study, test, and feedback trials during learning provided further support for the spacing hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)