Late Jurassic Safer Salt Member in the Al-Jawf sub-basin of NW Sabatayn Basin,Yemen: geochemical evaluation of organic-rich oil-source rock potential

Late Jurassic Safer shales in the Al-Jawf sub-basin are analyzed to evaluate the organic matter input, depositional conditions and petroleum generation potential. The shales have high organic matter, with TOC values of 1.0-13.5% and they contain predominantly Types II and III kerogen, referring to mainly oil- and gas-prone. These kerogens are indicative for dominate marine algal component and some terrestrial organic matter input as indicated from biomarkers. Moreover, the presence of the gammacerane also confirmed a high salinity stratification condition and suggests that the dominate Type II kerogen is rich-sulphur kerogen (Type II-S). The vitrinite reflectance (VRo%) and Rock-Eval pyrolysis T_max data indicate that the analyzed shales are immature.     

PETROLEUM POTENTIAL, THERMAL MATURITY AND THE OIL WINDOW OF OIL SHALES AND COALS IN CENOZOIC RIFT BASINS, CENTRAL AND NORTHERN THAILAND

Oil shales and coals occur in Cenozoic rift basins in central and northern Thailand. Thermally immature outcrops of these rocks may constitute analogues for source rocks which have generated oil in several of these rift basins. A total of 56 oil shale and coal samples were collected from eight different basins and analysed in detail in this study. The samples were analysed for their content of total organic carbon (TOC) and elemental composition. Source rock quality was determined by Rock‐Eval pyrolysis. Reflected light microscopy was used to analyse the organic matter (maceral) composition of the rocks, and the thermal maturity was determined by vitrinite reflectance (VR) measurements. In addition to the 56 samples, VR measurements were carried out in three wells from two oil‐producing basins and VR gradients were constructed. Rock‐Eval screening data from one of the wells is also presented. The oil shales were deposited in freshwater (to brackish) lakes with a high preservation potential (TOC contents up to 44.18 wt%). They contain abundant lamalginite and principally algal‐derived fluorescing amorphous organic matter followed by liptodetrinite and telalginite (Botryococcus‐type). Huminite may be present in subordinate amounts. The coals are completely dominated by huminite and were formed in freshwater mires. VR values from 0.38 to 0.47%R_o show that the exposed coals are thermally immature. VR values from the associated oil shales are suppressed by 0.11 to 0.28%R_o. The oil shales have H/C ratios >1.43, and Hydrogen Index (HI) values are generally >400 mg HC/g TOC and may reach 704 mg HC/ gTOC. In general, the coals have H/C ratios between about 0.80 and 0.90, and the HI values vary considerably from approximately 50 to 300 mg HC/gTOC. The HI_max of the coals, which represent the true source rock potential, range from ～160 to 310 mg HC/g TOC indicating a potential for oil/gas and oil generation. The steep VR curves from the oil‐producing basins reflect high geothermal gradients of ～62°C/km and ～92°C/km. The depth to the top oil window for the oil shales at a VR of ～0.70%R_o is determined to be between ～1100 m and 1800 m depending on the geothermal gradient. The kerogen composition of the oil shales and the high geothermal gradients result in narrow oil windows, possibly spanning only ～300 to 400 m in the warmest basins. The effective oil window of the coals is estimated to start from ～0.82 to 0.98%R_o and burial depths of ～1300 to 1400 m (～92°C/km) and ～2100 to 2300 m (～62°C/km) are necessary for efficient oil expulsion to occur.     

HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF MIDDLE JURASSIC COALY AND LACUSTRINE AND UPPER JURASSIC – LOWERMOST CRETACEOUS MARINE SOURCE ROCKS IN THE SØGNE BASIN,NORTH SEA

The Søgne Basin in the Danish‐Norwegian Central Graben is unique in the North Sea because it has been proven to contain commercial volumes of hydrocarbons derived only from Middle Jurassic coaly source rocks. Exploration here relies on the identification of good quality, mature Middle Jurassic coaly and lacustrine source rocks and Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous marine source rocks. The present study examines source rock data from almost 900 Middle Jurassic and Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous samples from 21 wells together with 286 vitrinite reflectance data from 14 wells. The kerogen composition and kinetics for bulk petroleum formation of three Middle Jurassic lacustrine samples were also determined. Differences in kerogen composition between the coaly and marine source rocks result in two principal oil windows: (i) the effective oil window for Middle Jurassic coaly strata, located at ～3800 m and spanning at least ～650 m; and (ii) the oil window for Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous marine mudstones, located at ～3250 m and spanning ～650 m. A possible third oil window may relate to Middle Jurassic lacustrine deposits. Middle Jurassic coaly strata are thermally mature in the southern part of the Søgne Basin and probably also in the north, whereas they are largely immature in the central part of the basin. HI_max values of the Middle Jurassic coals range from ～150–280 mg HC/g TOC indicating that they are gas‐prone to gas/oil‐prone. The overall source rock quality of the Middle Jurassic coaly rocks is fair to good, although a relatively large number of the samples are of poor source rock quality. At the present day, Middle Jurassic oil‐prone or gas/oil‐prone rocks occur in the southern part of the basin and possibly in a narrow zone in the northern part. In the remainder of the basin, these deposits are considered to be gas‐prone or are absent. Wells in the northernmost part of the Søgne Basin / southernmost Steinbit Terrace encountered Middle Jurassic organic–rich lacustrine mudstones with sapropelic kerogen, high HI values reaching 770 mg HC/g TOC and E_a‐distributions characterised by a single dominant E_a‐peak. The presence of lacustrine mudstones is also suggested by a limited number of samples with HI values above 300 mg HC/g TOC in the southern part of the basin; in addition, palynofacies demonstrate a progressive increase in the abundance and areal extent of lacustrine and brackish open water conditions during Callovian times. A regional presence of oil‐prone Middle Jurassic lacustrine source rocks in the Søgne Basin, however, remains speculative. Middle Jurassic kitchen areas may be present in an elongated palaeo‐depression in the northern part of the Søgne Basin and in restricted areas in the south. Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous mudstones are thermally mature in the central, western and northern parts of the basin; they are immature in the eastern part towards the Coffee Soil Fault, and overmature in the southernmost part. Only a minor proportion of the mudstones have HI values >300 mg HC/g TOC, and the present‐day source rock quality is for the best samples fair to good. In the south and probably also in most of the northern part of the Søgne Basin, the mudstones are most likely gas‐prone, whereas they may be gas/oil‐prone in the central part of the basin. A narrow elongated zone in the northern part of the basin may be oil‐prone. The marine mudstones are, however, volumetrically more significant than the Middle Jurassic strata. Possible Upper Jurassic – lowermost Cretaceous kitchen areas are today restricted to the central Søgne Basin and the elongated palaeo‐depression in the north.     

HYDROCARBON GENERATION POTENTIAL AND DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT OF SHALES IN THE CRETACEOUS NAPO FORMATION,EASTERN ORIENTE BASIN,ECUADOR

Marine shale samples from the Cretaceous (Albian‐Campanian) Napo Formation (n = 26) from six wells in the eastern Oriente Basin of Ecuador were analysed to evaluate their organic geochemical characteristics and petroleum generation potential. Geochemical analyses included measurements of total organic carbon (TOC) content, Rock‐Eval pyrolysis, pyrolysis — gas chromatography (Py—GC), gas chromatography — mass‐spectrometry (GC—MS), biomarker distributions and kerogen analysis by optical microscopy. Hydrocarbon accumulations in the eastern Oriente Basin are attributable to a single petroleum system, and oil and gas generated by Upper Cretaceous source rocks is trapped in reservoirs ranging in age from Early Cretaceous to Eocene. The shale samples analysed for this study came from the upper part of the Napo Formation T member (“Upper T”), the overlying B limestone, and the lower part of the U member (“Lower U”).The samples are rich in amorphous organic matter with TOC contents in the range 0.71–5.97 wt% and Rock‐Eval T_max values of 427–446°C. Kerogen in the B Limestone shales is oil‐prone Type II with δ¹³C of ?27.19 to ?27.45‰; whereas the Upper T and Lower U member samples contain Type II–III kerogen mixed with Type III (δ¹³C > ?26.30‰). The hydrocarbon yield (S₂) ranges from 0.68 to 40.92 mg HC/g rock (average: 12.61 mg HC/g rock). Hydrogen index (HI) values are 427–693 mg HC/g TOC for the B limestone samples, and 68–448 mg HC/g TOC for the Lower U and Upper T samples. The mean vitrinite reflectance is 0.56–0.79% R₀ for the B limestone samples and 0.40–0.60% R₀ for the Lower U and Upper T samples, indicating early to mid oil window maturity for the former and immature to early maturity for the latter. Microscopy shows that the shales studied contain abundant organic matter which is mainly amorphous or alginite of marine origin. Extracts of shale samples from the B limestone are characterized by low to medium molecular weight compounds (n‐C₁₄ to n‐C₂₀) and have a low Pr/Ph ratio (≈ 1.0), high phytane/n‐C₁₈ ratio (1.01–1.29), and dominant C₂₇ regular steranes. These biomarker parameters and the abundant amorphous organic matter indicate that the organic matter was derived from marine algal material and was deposited under anoxic conditions. By contrast, the extracts from the Lower U and Upper T shales contain medium to high molecular weight compounds (n‐C₂₅ to n‐C₃₁) and have a high Pr/ Ph ratio (>3.0), low phytane/n‐C₁₈ ratio (0.45–0.80) with dominant C₂₉ regular steranes, consistent with an origin from terrigenous higher plant material mixed with marine algae deposited under suboxic conditions. This is also indicated by the presence of mixed amorphous and structured organic matter. This new geochemical data suggests that the analysed shales from the Napo Formation, especially the shales from the B limestone which contain Type II kerogen, have significant hydrocarbon potential in the eastern part of the Oriente Basin. The data may help to explain the distribution of hydrocarbon reserves in the east of the Oriente Basin, and also assist with the prediction of non‐structural traps.     

HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL OF UPPER CRETACEOUS MARINE SOURCE ROCKS IN THE TERMIT BASIN,NIGER

Upper Cretaceous mudstones are the most important source rocks in the Termit Basin, SE Niger. For this study, 184 mudstone samples from the Santonian–Campanian Yogou Formation and the underlying Cenomanian–Coniacian Donga Formation from eight wells were analyzed on the basis of palaeontological, petrographical and geochemical data, the latter including the results of Rock‐Eval, biomarker and stable isotope analyses. Samples from the upper member of the Yogou Formation contain marine algae and ostracods together with freshwater algae (Pediastrum) and arenaceous foraminifera, indicating a shallow‐marine to paralic depositional environment with fresh‐ to brackish waters. Terrestrial pollen and spores are common and of high diversity, suggesting proximity to land. Samples from the lower member contain marine algae and ostracods and arenaceous foraminifera but without freshwater algae, indicating shallow‐marine and brackish‐water settings with less freshwater influence. The wide range of gammacerane index values, gammacerane/C₃₀ hopane (0.07–0.5) and Pr/Ph ratios (0.63–4.68) in samples from the upper member of the Yogou Formation suggest a low to moderately saline environment with oxic to anoxic conditions. In samples from the lower member, the narrower range of the gammacerane index (0.23～0.35) and Pr/Ph ratios (0.76–1.36) probably indicate a moderately saline environment with suboxic to relatively anoxic conditions. Petrographic analyses of the Yogou Formation samples show that organic matter is dominated by terrestrial higher plant material with vitrinite, inertinite and specific liptinites (sporinite, cutinite and resinite). Extracts are characterized by a dominance of C₂₉ steranes over C₂₇ and C₂₈ homologues. Results of pyrolysis and elemental analyses indicate that the organic matter is composed mainly of Type II kerogen grading to mixed Type II‐III and Type III material with poor to excellent petroleum potential. Mudstones from the upper member of the Yogou Formation have higher petroleum generation potential than those from the lower member. Mudstones in the Donga Formation are dominated by Type III organic matter with poor to fair petroleum generation potential. Geochemical parameters indicate that in terms of thermal maturity the Yogou Formations has reached or surpassed the early phase of oil generation. Samples have T_max values and 20S/(20S+20R) C₂₉ sterane ratios greater than 435°C and 0.35, respectively. 22S/(22S+22R) ratios of C₃₁ homohopanes range from 0.50 to 0.54. The results of this study will help to provide a better understanding of the hydrocarbon potential of Upper Cretaceous marine source rocks in the Termit Basin and also in coeval intracontinental rift basins such as the Tenere Basin (Niger), Bornu Basin (Nigeria) and Benue Trough (Nigeria).     

COMPOSITION AND PETROLEUM POTENTIAL OF LAKE FACIES IN THE FA-MS-48-73 WELL, MAE SOON STRUCTURE, FANG OILFIELD, NORTHERN THAILAND

The Fang Basin is one of a series of Cenozoic rift‐related structures in northern Thailand. The Fang oilfield includes a number of structures including the Mae Soon anticline on which well FA‐MS‐48‐73 was drilled, encountering oil‐filled sandstone reservoirs at several levels. Cuttings samples were collected from the well between depths of 532 and 1146 m and were analysed for their content of total organic carbon (TOC, wt%), total carbon (TC, wt%) and total sulphur (TS, wt%); the petroleum generation potential was determined by Rock‐Eval pyrolysis. Organic petrography was performed in order to determine qualitatively the organic composition of selected samples, and the thermal maturity of the rocks was established by vitrinite reflectance (VR) measurements in oil immersion. The TOC content ranges from 0.75 to 2.22 wt% with an average of 1.43 wt%. The TS content is variable with values ranging from 0.12 to 0.63 wt%. Rock‐Eval derived S₁ and S₂ yields range from 0.01–0.20 mg HC/g rock and 1.41–9.51 mg HC/g rock, respectively. The HI values range from 140 to 428 mg HC/g TOC, but the majority of the samples have HI values >200 mg HC/g TOC and about one‐third of the samples have HI values above 300 mg HC/g TOC. The drilled section thus possesses a fair to good potential for mixed oil/gas and oil generation. On an HI/T_max diagram, the organic matter is classified as Type II and III kerogen. The organic matter consists mainly of telalginite (Botryococcus‐type), lamalginite, fluorescing amorphous organic matter (AOM) and liptodetrinite which combined with various TS‐plots suggest deposition in a freshwater lacustrine environment with mild oxidising conditions. T_max values range from 419 to 436°C, averaging 429°C, and VR values range from ～0.38 to 0.66% R₀, indicating that the drilled source rocks are thermally immature with respect to petroleum generation. The encountered oils were thus generated by more deeply buried source rocks.     

ORGANIC GEOCHEMISTRY OF POTENTIAL SOURCE ROCKS IN THE TERTIARY DINGQINGHU FORMATION,NIMA BASIN,CENTRAL TIBET

The Tertiary Nima Basin in central Tibet covers an area of some 3000 km² and is closely similar to the nearby Lunpola Basin from which commercial volumes of oil have been produced. In this paper, we report on the source rock potential of the Oligocene Dingqinghu Formation from measured outcrop sections on the southern and northern margins of the Nima Basin. In the south of the Nima Basin, potential source rocks in the Dingqinghu Formation comprise dark‐coloured marls with total organic carbon (TOC) contents of up to 4.3 wt % and Hydrogen Index values (HI) up to 849 mg HC/g TOC. The organic matter is mainly composed of amorphous sapropelinite corresponding to Type I kerogen. Rock‐Eval T_max (430–451°C) and vitrinite reflectance (R_r) (average R_r= 0.50%) show that the organic matter is marginally mature. The potential yield (up to 36.95 mg HC/g rock) and a plot of S2 versus TOC suggest that the marls have moderate to good source rock potential. They are interpreted to have been deposited in a stratified palaeolake with occasionally anoxic and hypersaline conditions, and the source of the organic matter was dominated by algae as indicated by biomarker analyses. Potential source rocks from the north of the basin comprise dark shales and marls with a TOC content averaging 9.7 wt % and HI values up to 389 mg HC/g TOC. Organic matter consists mainly of amorphous sapropelinite and vitrinite with minor sporinite, corresponding to Type II‐III kerogen. This is consistent with the kerogen type suggested by cross‐plots of HI versus T_max and H/C versus O/C. The T_max and R_r results indicate that the samples are immature to marginally mature. These source rocks, interpreted to have been deposited under oxic conditions with a dominant input of terrigenous organic matter, have moderate petroleum potential. The Dingqinghu Formation in the Nima Basin therefore has some promise in terms of future exploration potential.     

西藏波林盆地侏罗—白垩系海相烃源岩评价

波林盆地位于青藏高原西南缘,面积约30 000 km2,是高原内勘探程度极低的海相含油气盆地之一。通过对盆地内烃源岩展布特征以及实测剖面的烃源岩有机质丰度、类型和热演化成熟度等有机地球化学参数的分析,认为该盆地存在2套主要烃源岩:上侏罗统门卡墩组黑色页岩厚达432 m,主要沉积于外陆棚环境,残余有机碳含量在0.67%~1.62%,平均1.03%,经过有机质恢复后有机碳含量在0.91%~2.40%,平均1.48%;岗巴群黑色页岩厚度56 m,为一套外陆棚沉积,残余有机碳含量在0.7%~1.08%,平均0.86%;恢复后有机碳含量在0.96%~1.60%,平均1.21%。2套烃源岩都以Ⅱ1型有机质为主,达到高—过成熟阶段,属于盆地内的好烃源岩。因此,该盆地有较丰富的油气生成的物质基础,具有较好的油气勘探前景。     

AN OVERVIEW OF THE PETROLEUM SYSTEMS IN THE IONIAN ZONE,ONSHORE NW GREECE AND ALBANIA

The Ionian and Gavrovo Zones in the external Hellenide fold‐and‐thrust belt of western Greece are a southern extension of the proven Albanian oil and gas province. Two petroleum systems have been identified here: a Mesozoic mainly oil‐prone system, and a Cenozoic system with gas potential. Potential Mesozoic source rocks include organic‐rich shales within Triassic evaporites and dissolution‐collapse breccias; marls at the base of the Early Jurassic (lower Toarcian) Ammonitico Rosso; the Lower and Upper Posidonia beds (Toarcian–Aalenian and Callovian–Tithonian respectively); and the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian–Turonian) Vigla Shales, part of the Vigla Limestone Formation. These potential source rocks contain Types I‐II kerogen and are mature for oil generation if sufficiently deeply buried. The Vigla Shales have TOC up to 2.5% and good to excellent hydrocarbon generation potential with kerogen Type II. Potential Cenozoic gas‐prone source rocks with Type III kerogen comprise organic‐rich intervals in Eocene–Oligocene and Aquitanian–Burdigalian submarine fan deposits, which may generate biogenic gas. The complex regional deformation history of the external Hellenide foldbelt, with periods of both crustal extension and shortening, has resulted in the development of structural traps. Mesozoic extensional structures have been overprinted by later Hellenide thrusts, and favourable trap locations may occur along thrust back‐limbs and in the crests of anticlines. Trapping geometries may also be provided by lateral discontinuities in the basal detachment in the thin‐skinned fold‐and‐thrust belt, or associated with strike‐slip fault zones. Regional‐scale seals are provided by Triassic evaporites, and Eocene‐Oligocene and Neogene shales. Onshore oil‐ and gasfields in Albania are located in the Peri‐Adriatic Depression and Ionian Zone. Numerous oil seeps have been recorded in the Kruja Zone but no commercial hydrocarbon accumulations. Source rocks in the Ionian Zone comprise Upper Triassic – Lower Jurassic carbonates and shales of Middle Jurassic, Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous ages. Reservoir rocks in both oil‐ and gas‐fields in general consist of silicilastics in the Peri‐Adriatic Depression succession and the underlying Cretaceous–Eocene carbonates with minimal primary porosity improved by fracturing in the Albanian Ionian Zone. Oil accumulations in thrust‐related structures are sealed by the overlying Oligocene flysch whereas seals for gas accumulations are provided by Upper Miocene–Pliocene shales. Thin‐kinned thrusting along flysch décollements, resulting in stacked carbonate sequences, has clearly been demonstrated on seismic profiles and in well data, possibly enhanced by evaporitic horizons. Offshore Albania in the South Adriatic basin, exploration targets in the SW include possible compressional structures and topographic highs proximal to the relatively unstructured boundary of the Apulian platform. Further to the north, there is potential for oil accumulations both in the overpressured siliciclastic section and in the underlying deeply buried platform carbonates. Biogenic gas potential is related to structures in the overpressured Neogene (Miocene–Pliocene) succession.     

海相优质烃源岩形成重质油与固体沥青潜力分析

通过中国海相烃源岩、浮游藻、底栖藻等大量热压生排烃模拟实验与南方海相碳酸盐岩层系储层固体沥青发育特征相结合,认为海相优质烃源岩具备形成大量重质油及固体沥青的潜力。主要依据为:海相烃源岩主要成烃生物——浮游藻热压生油模拟实验表明在成熟早期(R_o为0.45%~0.7%)就出现生油高峰,可以大量生成以非烃+沥青质为主的重质油,每吨TOC生成的原油最高可达1 000 kg以上,它也是形成储层固体沥青的主体;海相未成熟优质烃源岩(Ⅰ—Ⅱ₁型干酪根,TOC大于2%)在成熟早期也可以大量生成以非烃+沥青质为主的重质油,每吨TOC总生油量可达300 kg,约占最高生油量的50%以上,总生烃量的40%以上,它随干酪根类型变差、有机质丰度减小(TOC小于2%)、碳酸盐含量变低(小于5%)而逐渐减少;中国南方二叠系、下志留统龙马溪组海相优质烃源岩在成熟早期形成的重质油及在准同生至成岩作用早期呈悬浮态运移出来的沉积有机质,经后期埋深高温裂解与聚合可以大量形成储层固体沥青。      

MODELLING HYDROCARBON GENERATION IN THE PALAEOZOIC AND MESOZOIC SUCCESSIONS IN SE POLAND AND WEST UKRAINE

The Lower Palaeozoic succession in SE Poland and West Ukraine has source rock potential, particularly the Ordovician and Silurian which contain oil‐prone Type II kerogen. The thermal maturity of these units ranges from early to late‐phase oil window (locally up to gas window). Within the Mesozoic succession, source rock potential is highest in the Middle Jurassic which has TOC of up to 26 wt% and a genetic potential of up to 39 mg/g of rock, with organic matter dominated by gas‐prone Type III kerogen. In SE Poland, the organic matter in this unit is generally immature, whereas maturities in West Ukraine are sufficient for hydrocarbon generation to occur. Modelling of hydrocarbon generation suggested that petroleum in Lower Palaeozoic source rocks began to be generated in the Early Carboniferous. Peak generation took place from the late Visean to the early Namurian, and terminated either as a result of source rock depletion or Variscian inversion. Expelled hydrocarbons migrated during post‐Carboniferous and Mesozoic uplift. Middle Jurassic source rocks in SE Poland have only reached the early oil window. Higher thermal maturities in the Ukraine resulted in hydrocarbon generation and expulsion. This took place after Miocene burial and maturation. A number of small hydrocarbon accumulations occur in Mesozoic reservoirs in SE Poland / West Ukraine, and hydrocarbons have migrated from Cambrian and Ordovician source rocks. However, the prospectivity of the study area is reduced as a result of phases of uplift and intense erosion which allowed hydrocarbons to escape from structural traps.     

海相不同类型烃源岩生排烃模式研究

在海相烃源岩研究的基础上,筛选出青藏高原中生界和冀北地区上元古界未成熟—成熟海相不同类型烃源岩 10 个样品为代表,进行热压模拟试验,创建了海相3种类型干酪根和4种主要岩类的17种原始和再次生排烃模式。提出了海相烃源岩从Ⅰ型干酪根到Ⅱ₁型到Ⅱ₂型再到固体沥青,生排油、烃气和总生烃量逐渐变低,油质逐渐变轻,气逐渐变干,生烃速率也逐渐减小;从富烃页岩到富烃泥灰岩到富烃灰岩再到固体沥青,排油效率逐渐增加,总生排烃量和生烃速率具有逐渐减少的趋势,生烃气占总烃比例则从固体沥青到富烃页岩到泥灰岩到灰岩逐渐增加;从海相富烃源岩到低有机质含量的碳酸盐岩或随着有机质丰度的降低(TOC 0.2%到1.0%),生排油、烃气量和总生烃量及生烃速率逐渐变小,生烃气占总烃比例逐渐增加。      

济阳坳陷沙河街组有效烃源岩特征与评价

有效烃源岩的概念和应用需要实践的验证。济阳坳陷油气勘探已有40年历史，积累了研究有效烃源岩的大量地质地球化学资料。综合利用前人的研究成果，根据大量样品分析和地质研究，认为沙四段上部盐湖-咸水湖相、沙三段下部咸水-半咸水环境沉积的油页岩、灰质(含灰质)泥页岩是济阳坳陷主要油田的原油提供者，它们是湖盆因盐度不同而形成分层水体并造成缺氧环境中沉积的，有机碳含量多大于2％，有机质性质良好，但是由于断陷活动差异性、浊流沉积的事件性和气候多变性，缺氧环境不时被打破，存在很强的非均质性和分布的区域性。为了真实反映这种有效烃源岩的时空分布，提出了体系域为单元的、按有机碳含量划分5级烃源岩的评价方法，并且讨论了有效烃源岩对油气成藏的控制作作。图2参9     

SOURCE ROCK POTENTIAL OF ORGANIC‐RICH SHALES IN THE TERTIARY BHUBAN AND BOKA BIL FORMATIONS,BENGAL BASIN,BANGLADESH

Sandstones in the Miocene Bhuban and Lower Pliocene Boka Bil Formations contain all of the hydrocarbons so far discovered in the Bengal Basin, Bangladesh. Organic‐rich shale intervals in these formations have source rock potential and are the focus of the present study which is based on an analysis of 36 core samples from wells in eight gasfields in the eastern Bengal Basin. Kerogen facies and thermal maturity of these shales were studied using standard organic geochemical and organic petrographic techniques. Organic matter is dominated by Type III kerogen with lesser amounts of Type II. TOC is 0.16–0.90 wt % (Bhuban Formation) and 0.15–0.55 wt % (Boka Bil Formation) and extractable organic matter (EOM) is 132–2814 ppm and 235–1458 ppm, respectively. The hydrogen index is 20–181 mg HC/g TOC in the Bhuban shales and 35–282 mg HC/ g TOC in the Boka Bil shales. Vitrinite was the dominant maceral group observed followed by liptinite and inertinite. Gas chromatographic parameters including the C/S ratio, n‐alkane CPI, Pr/Ph ratio, hopane Ts/Tm ratio and sterane distribution suggest that the organic matter in both formations is mainly derived from terrestrial sources deposited in conditions which alternated between oxic and sub‐oxic. The geochemical and petrographic results suggest that the shales analysed can be ranked as poor to fair gas‐prone source rocks. The maturity of the samples varies, and vitrinite reflectance ranges from 0.48 to 0.76 %VR_r. Geochemical parameters support a maturity range from just pre‐ oil window to mid‐ oil window.     

ORGANIC-RICH SHALES IN THE UPPER TRIASSIC ZANGXIAHE FORMATION,NORTHERN QIANGTANG DEPRESSION,NORTHERN TIBET: DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND HYDROCARBON GENERATION POTENTIAL

This study reports on the organic geochemical characteristics of high-TOC shales in the Upper Triassic Zangxiahe Formation from a study area in the north of the Northern Qiangtang Depression, northern Tibet. A total of fifty outcrop samples from the Duoseliangzi, Zangxiahe South and Zangxiahe East locations were studied to evaluate the organic matter content of the shales and their thermal maturity and depositional environment, and to assess their hydrocarbon generation potential. Zangxiahe Formation shales from the Duoseliangzi profile have moderate to good source rock potential with TOC contents of up to 3.4 wt.% (average 1.2 wt.%) and potential yield (S₁+S₂) of up to 1.11 mg HC/g rock. Vitrinite reflectance (R_o) and T_max values show that the organic matter is highly mature, corresponding to the condensate/wet gas generation stage. The shales contain mostly Types II and I kerogen mixed with minor Type III, and have relatively high S/C ratios, high contents of amorphous sapropelinite, low Pr/Ph ratios, high values of the C₃₅ homohopane index (up to 3.58%), abundant gammacerane content, and a predominance of C₂₇ steranes. These parameters indicate a saline, shallow-marine depositional setting with an anoxic, stratified water column. The source of organic matter was mainly aquatic OM (algal/bacterial) with subordinate terrigenous OM. Zangxiahe Formation shale samples from the Zangxiahe East and Zangxiahe South locations have relatively low TOC contents (0.2 to 0.8 wt.%) with Type II kerogen, suggesting poor to medium hydrocarbon generation potential. R_o and T_max values indicate that organic matter from these locations is overmature. The discovery of organic-rich Upper Triassic shales with source rock potential in the north of the Northern Qiangtang Depression will be of significance for oil and gas exploration elsewhere in the Qiangtang Basin. Future exploration should focus on locations such as Bandaohu to the SE of the study area where the organic-rich shales are well developed, and where structural traps have been recorded together with potential reservoir rocks and thick mudstones which could act as seals.     

烃源岩有机碳含量与生排油效率动态评价

选择海相典型烃源岩样品和人工配制烃源岩样品进行热压模拟实验,对比分析了海相烃源岩的生油量、生排油效率与烃源岩有机碳含量的关系,模拟结果表明:（1）烃源岩的生排油量与烃源岩有机碳含量呈线性正相关关系,生排油效率与有机碳含量呈曲线（非线性）正相关关系,相关系数的大小与烃源岩的干酪根类型、岩性及演化史等有关;（2）在整个生烃演化过程中,高有机质含量的优质烃源岩（TOC一般大于2%）的生排油量和效率都高于中等有机质丰度的中等烃源岩（TOC一般在0.5%~2.0%之间）和低有机质丰度的差烃源岩（TOC一般小于0.5%）,只有高有机质丰度的优质烃源岩才能够大量生排出油并形成大油田,差烃源岩即使很厚也难以形成大量的油气聚集;（3）在地质演化过程中,烃源岩TOC含量及其生排油气能力始终都是动态变化的,因此需要在确定演化阶段的基础上,结合有机碳含量和生排油效率进行烃源岩和资源量动态评价。      

SOURCE ROCK PROPERTIES OF LACUSTRINE MUDSTONES AND COALS (OLIGOCENE DONG HO FORMATION), ONSHORE SONG HONG BASIN, NORTHERN VIETNAM

Oligocene lacustrine mudstones and coals of the Dong Ho Formation outcropping around Dong Ho, at the northern margin of the mainly offshore Cenozoic Song Hong Basin (northern Vietnam), include highly oil‐prone potential source rocks. Mudstone and coal samples were collected and analysed for their content of total organic carbon and total sulphur, and source rock screening data were obtained by Rock‐Eval pyrolysis. The organic matter composition in a number of samples was analysed by reflected light microscopy. In addition, two coal samples were subjected to progressive hydrous pyrolysis in order to study their oil generation characteristics, including the compositional evolution in the extracts from the pyrolysed samples. The organic material in the mudstones is mainly composed of fluorescing amorphous organic matter, liptodetrinite and alginite with Botryococcus‐morphology (corresponding to Type I kerogen). The mudstones contain up to 19.6 wt.% TOC and Hydrogen Index values range from 436–572 mg HC/g TOC. From a pyrolysis S₂ versus TOC plot it is estimated that about 55% of the mudstones’TOC can be pyrolised into hydrocarbons; the plot also suggests that a minimum content of only 0.5 wt.% TOC is required to saturate the source rock to the expulsion threshold. Humic coals and coaly mudstones have Hydrogen Index values of 318–409 mg HC/g TOC. They are dominated by huminite (Type III kerogen) and generally contain a significant proportion of terrestrial‐derived liptodetrinite. Upon artificial maturation by hydrous pyrolysis, the coals generate significant quantities of saturated hydrocarbons, which are probably expelled at or before a maturity corresponding to a vitrinite reflectance of 0.97%R₀. This is earlier than previously indicated from Dong Ho Formation coals with a lower source potential. The composition of a newly discovered oil (well B10‐STB‐1x) at the NE margin of the Song Hong Basin is consistent with contributions from both source rocks, and is encouraging for the prospectivity of offshore half‐grabens in the Song Hong Basin.     

PART 1: ROCK-EVALFYROLYSIS AND VITRINITE REFLECTANCE1

Detailed organic geochemistry has been performed on a large number of Lower Mississippian-Upper Devonian Bakken shales from the North Dakota portion of the Williston Basin, and 28 oils mainly from Mississippian Madison Group rocks from different basinal areas. Here we report results of Rock-Eval pyrolysis and vitrinite reflectance (R_o) analyses. Variable paleoheat flows in the Williston Basin caused the threshold of intense hydrocarbon generation to occur at different depths in different basinal areas. In higher paleogeothermal gradient basinal areas, this event occurred at depths of 7,650-8,000 ft, and at 10,000 ft or deeper in lower paleogeothermal gradient areas of the Basin. Distinct organic metamorphic imprints in Williston Basin sediments were also caused by extreme, but variable, paleoheat flows in the basin, as well as secondary migration of crude oils from deep basinal source areas. The high paleoheat flows are postulated as being due to a Late Cretaceous — Paleocene aborted rift event. Only a small volume of Bakken shales in restricted areas of the Williston Basin was responsible for the oil found reservoired in Mississippian Madison Group rocks. However, this small shale volume has been responsible for a relatively large amount of crude oil. R₀ profiles in the Tertiary through Middle Jurassic rocks in the Williston Basin had steep, linear R_o versus depth gradients, with strong reversals of R₀ values occurring in the Lower Jurassic rocks. The lower Mesozoic through Paleozoic rocks of the Basin had strongly suppressed R₀ values compared to the values in the Tertiary through Middle Jurassic rocks. This was especially true of the R₀ values in the Bakken shales. This R₀ suppression was due to a change in organic matter (OM) type from oxygen-rich terrestrially derived OM in the younger rocks, to a hydrogen-rich marine derived OM in the deeper, older rocks. The threshold of intense oil generation (TIHG) occurred in the Bakken shales of the Williston Basin at R₀ values somewhere between 0.9 and 1.7% (best estimate 0.9), as would be read in oxygen-rich OM. Much higher burial temperatures (and consequently R₀ values) than usually held to be necessary were required for both the TIHG as well as mainstage hydrocarbon generation in the Bakken shales. These results are most likely applicable in general to source rocks with hydrogen-rich OM. The data of this study have major implications to petroleum exploration as well as to petroleum resource assessment.     

ORGANIC GEOCHEMISTRY AND PETROLOGY OF A LOWER JURASSIC (PLIENSBACHIAN) PETROLEUM SOURCE ROCK FROM AÏT MOUSSA,MIDDLE ATLAS,MOROCCO

Organic‐rich silty marls and limestones (Pliensbachian to earliest Toarcian) exposed at Aït Moussa in Boulemane Province are the only known example of an effective petroleum source rock in the Middle Atlas of Morocco. In this study, petrological and organic‐geochemical analyses (vitrinite reflectance measurements, Rock‐Eval pyrolysis, GC‐MS) were carried out in order to evaluate the maturity, quality and quantity of the organic matter (OM) and to investigate the depositional environment of these source rocks. Results indicate the presence of Type I/II kerogen which was deposited under marine conditions with an input of predominantly algal‐derived organic matter. The presence of woody particles indicates minor input of terrestrial material. Organic‐geochemical and biomarker analyses are consistent with deposition of carbonate‐rich sediments under oxygen‐depleted but not anoxic conditions. In terms of thermal maturity, the sediments have reached the oil window (0.5–0.6 %VR_t) but not peak oil generation, although petroleum generation and migration are indicated by organic geochemical and microscopic evidence. Kinetic parameters derived from an investigation of petroleum generation characteristics show that the kerogen decomposes within a narrow temperature interval due to the fairly homogenous structure of the algal‐derived organic matter. The kinetic parameters together with vitrinite reflectance data were used to construct a ID model of the burial, thermal and maturation history of the Aït Moussa locality. The model suggested that deepest burial (approx. 3200 m) for the Pliensbachian succession took place in the Eocene (approx. 40 Ma). Two phases of hydrocarbon generation occurred, the first in the Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous (approx. 150 Ma), and the second at the time of deepest burial (Eocene).