纵向通风下隧道长度对临界风速的影响分析

临界风速可有效控制烟气蔓延,是隧道防灾通风重要参数。为分析隧道长度对临界风速的影响,采用量纲分析法构建临界风速与隧道长度关系公式,并分别在5 MW和30 MW火源热释放速率下,对不同长度隧道的火灾进行数值模拟以量化研究隧道长度对临界风速的影响。结果表明,隧道长度对临界风速具有影响,且不同火源释放速率时影响也有所不同:无量纲火源热释放速率小于0.15时,临界风速随隧道长度增大呈现1/41次方增长关系;无量纲火源热释放速率高于0.15时,临界风速随隧道长度增大呈现1/25次方增长关系。进而建立了考虑隧道长度的无量纲临界风速计算公式。     

弧形公路隧道临界风速数值模拟研究

基于PyroSim软件,利用数值模拟的方法,建立弧度段圆心角分别为30°、60°、90°、120°、150°、180°的三维隧道模型,变换火源位置,分析弧度对于弧形隧道临界风速变化的影响。弧度段的直径为100 m,火源的热释放速率设置为20MW。在不同弧形的隧道中,当火源点在相同的弧度位置时,不同弧形隧道的临界风速变化不大;当火源位置在0°~90°位置变化时,临界风速随着弧度的增大而增大;当火源位置超过90°时,临界风速随着弧度的增大而减小。     

含渐缩段卜形分岔合流隧道火灾临界风速研究

为探究“卜”形分岔隧道这一特殊隧道结构对隧道火灾临界风速的影响,运用FDS构建了主路渐缩分岔隧道、主路等宽分岔隧道与直线隧道3种结构的缩尺寸隧道模型,通过数值模拟分析隧道渐缩结构与分岔角度对火灾临界风速的影响。研究表明,对于主路渐缩的分岔隧道,当火源所在位置的局部隧道宽度减小时,所需的临界风量变小。而火源位置确定时,隧道的渐缩结构、分岔角度和分岔结构对临界风速的影响不明显,并提出一种适用于隧道工程渐缩段任意火源位置临界风量的计算公式。对于主路位置的火灾,提出无量纲临界风速与无量纲热释放速率的关系式,与前人直线隧道的变化规律相似,而较高的隧道高度导致临界风速的转折点较大。     

集中排烟水平隧道排风诱导风速CFD分析

结合某长大公路隧道集中排烟系统设计,通过CFD模拟,分析不同排风诱导风速下水平隧道内烟气控制效果.模拟结果表明:火灾热释放速率一定时,随着诱导风速的增大,排风口下游烟气扩散范围不断缩小,即诱导风速可以作为衡量集中排烟系统烟气控制效果的重要指标;此外,与临界风速相似,其数值随着火灾强度的增大的而增大;为了便于工程应用,进一步将模拟结果回归整理成无量纲准则关联式,充分反映了三者之间的耦合关系.在数值模拟的基础上,作者对隧道排烟系统进行了优化设计,并与纵向通风临界风速进行了比较.     

北京地铁4号线隧道火灾烟气控制的CFD模拟

本文根据北京地铁4号线某段隧道的实际尺寸建立了几何模型,针对该模型利用CFD方法模拟了纵向通风对控制火灾烟气扩散的作用,研究了不同热源形状条件下临界通风速度与热释放率的关系,并将其与已有研究成果进行了对比.结果显示在热源形状不变时,临界通风速度与热释放率(HRR)和隧道宽度之比的1/3次方成正比,热羽流在临界通风速度下倾斜角为常数;当热源长度随热释放率成比例变化时,临界通风速度在高热释放率条件下呈现出稳定不变的趋势.研究表明在采用数值模拟方法进行隧道火灾通风设计时,热源条件的设置对模拟结果有显著影响.     

火源横向位置及面积对双车道公路隧道临界风速影响研究

为了探明火源横向位置对临界风速的影响规律,运用FDS研究马蹄形断面双车道公路隧道内火源位于隧道中心与侧壁两种场景下的临界风速,并改变火源面积,结合理论分析,与前人矩形断面隧道内的研究结果进行对比。结果表明：单位面积热释放速率一定时,临界风速随火源面积的增大而增大;壁面火的临界风速小于中心火的临界风速,与矩形断面隧道存在差异;且随着火源面积的扩大,壁面火与中心火的临界风速比值趋近于1;不能用“镜面效应”解释马蹄形隧道内壁面火与中心火临界风速差异的原因。     

断面宽度对纵向通风隧道火风压影响研究

针对不同断面宽度隧道中发生火灾时的火风压变化问题,利用Fluent软件模拟隧道内发生火灾的情况,分析隧道宽度对临界风速的影响以及隧道宽度、火源功率和通风速度对火风压的影响。研究表明,火源功率较小时,宽度越小的隧道,临界风速越大;随着火源功率的增大,临界风速之间的差距减小。火风压中火区绕流阻力和热烟摩阻增量会随着风速的增大而相互作用。导致火风压会先随风速的增大而增大,到达一个峰值后会随着风速增大而减小,最后当通风速度增大到临界风速后趋于稳定的数值。随着隧道宽度的增大,通风速率对火风压的影响逐渐减弱。建立不同宽度隧道在不同通风速率和火源功率下的隧道火风压计算公式,为隧道火灾通风设计提供参考。     

区间隧道火灾临界风速和温度特性

为了研究地铁区间隧道火灾临界风速和温度变化规律,建立了西安某地铁站区间隧道模型,采用FDS模拟软件对不同纵向通风条件下烟气流动和温度分布进行模拟。介绍模型的基本参数,根据Froude相似性原理建立了各个燃烧参数的相似性关系。利用FDS模拟不同火灾功率、不同通风速度时的温度和烟气速度分布。对比分析5、6、7、8、9、10 MW火灾功率下的临界风速变规律化并提出预测模型。结果表明:纵向通风风速设为3m/s时对防止9 MW以下的火源功率火灾烟气回流效果明显;热释放速率不大于10 MW时,隧道火灾中烟气温度不大于250℃,火源下风侧烟气流动速度不大于4 m/s。     

风口特性对集中排烟隧道烟气控制效果的影响

结合某集中排烟隧道通风设计,通过 CFD 模拟,分析了排烟风口形状、风口间距对烟气控制效果的影响.模拟结果表明,集中排烟系统能获得良好的烟气控制效果;排风诱导风速随着火灾热释放速率的增大、排烟口下游烟气扩散范围的缩小而增大;热释放速率、烟气扩散距离一定时,排烟风口形状由正方形变为横向矩形布置、增大风口间距,均可以有效降低诱导风速.在数值模拟的基础上,得到了适合工程应用的量纲一准则关联式,并对隧道集中排烟系统进行了优化设计.     

通风对竖井型隧道火灾烟气特性影响试验研究

通过隧道火灾模型试验,研究纵向通风对竖井排烟效果及隧道内纵向烟气温度分布的影响。试验考虑不同火源热释放速率和纵向风速。结果表明：纵向风速对正庚烷池火热释放速率存在影响,对于较小正庚烷池火（≤11 cm）,火源热释放速率基本不随纵向风速而改变;对于较大正庚烷池火（≥14 cm）,火源热释放率随风速的增加先降低后基本保持恒定。此外,当隧道内风速较小时,竖井内烟气附壁排出,竖井后方烟气温度较低,控烟效果较好;当隧道内风速较大时,竖井内烟气出现边界分离,竖井后方温度升高,烟气蔓延距离增加,竖井排烟效果较差。因此,建议当竖井型隧道内发生火灾时,应尽量采用自然通风或较低的内部通风,避免较高风速。     

Control of smoke flow in tunnel fires using longitudinal ventilation systems – a study of the critical velocity

The “critical velocity” is the minimum air velocity required to suppress the smoke spreading against the longitudinal ventilation flow during tunnel fire situations. The current techniques for prediction of the values of the critical velocity for various tunnels were mainly based on semi-empirical equations obtained from the Froude number preservation combining with some experimental data. There are a few uncertainties in the current methods of prediction of the critical ventilation velocity. The first is the influence of the fire power on the critical ventilation velocity. The second is the effect of the tunnel geometry on the critical velocity. Both problems lead to the issues of the scaling techniques in tunnel fires. This study addressed these problems by carrying out a series of experimental tests in five model tunnels having the same height but different cross-sectional geometry. Detailed temperature and velocity distributions in the tunnels have been carried out. The experimental results showed that the critical velocity did vary with the tunnel cross-sectional geometry. It was also shown clearly that there are two regimes of variation of critical velocity against fire heat release rate. At low rates of heat release the critical velocity varies as the one-third power of the heat release rate, however at higher rates of heat release, the critical velocity becomes independent of fire heat release rate. Analysis of the distribution of temperature within the fire plumes showed that there were two fire plume distributions at the critical ventilation conditions. The change of the fire plume distribution coincided with the change of the regime in the curves of the critical velocity against fire heat release rate. The study used dimensionless velocity and dimensionless heat release rate with the tunnel hydraulic height (tunnel mean hydraulic diameter) as the characteristic length in the experimental data analysis. It was shown that the experimental data for the five tunnels can be correlated into simple formulae which can be used for scaling. The new scaling techniques are examined by applying the scaling techniques to the present experimental results and three large-scale experimental results available in the public literature. A good agreement has been obtained. This suggests that the scaling techniques can be used with confidence to predict the critical ventilation velocity for larger-scale tunnels in any cross-sectional geometry. Comprehensive CFD simulations have been carried out to examine the flow behaviour inside the tunnels. Validation against the experimental results showed that the CFD gave slightly lower but satisfactory prediction of the flow velocity. However the temperature prediction in the fire region was too high. The findings from the CFD simulations supported the ones from experimental tests.     

Experimental studies on smoke movement in a model tunnel with longitudinal ventilation

Results from a series of fire tests carried out in a horizontal model tunnel (1:10) with longitudinal ventilation are presented. Pool fire with methanol as the fuel was used to simulate the fire source. Temperature and velocity distribution in the model tunnel were measured. The heat release rate, maximum gas temperature under the ceiling, back-layering length and critical velocity were investigated and compared with models proposed previously. Predicted maximum gas temperature under tunnel ceiling by Kurioka’s model agreed well with the experimental data with maximum discrepancy less than 20%. Dimensionless back-layering length was found decreased with the increase of the dimensionless ventilation velocity nearly linearly. Due to the difference between the experimental conditions and validating conditions of models proposed previously, diversities were found between the experimental results and predicted values base on Froude modeling. Maximum discrepancy on critical velocity might be about 40%. Models considering the effect of boundaries and heat loss of smoke more detailedly remain to be further developed.     

Numerical analysis of tunnel thermal plume control using longitudinal ventilation

A CFD model of the 4th Beijing subway line was used to study the effect of longitudinal ventilation on heat and smoke plume movement in the tunnel. The critical ventilation velocity is correlated with the heat release rate for both a simplified heat fire source model and a complete combustion fire source model with methane gas as fuel. The influences of the heat source length and the fuel gas inlet geometry on the critical velocity are investigated for both fire source models. The results show that the influences of the combustion process and fire source area variation are not included in models based on Froude number preservation theory. Thus, Ri is no longer suitable as a dimensionless number for the critical ventilation velocity when the fire geometry or combustion conditions influence the results. The back-layering air temperature above the front of the fire source can be used to explain the different critical velocity variation regimes for all the simulation conditions.     

The critical ventilation velocity in tunnel fires—a computer simulation

In ventilated tunnel fires, smoke and hot combustion products may form a layer near the ceiling and flow in the direction opposite to the ventilation stream. The existence of this reverse stratified flow has an important bearing on fire fighting and evacuation of underground mine roadways, tunnels and building corridors. In the present study, conducted by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, a CFD program (fire dynamics simulator) based on large eddy simulations (LES) is used to model floor-level fires in a ventilated tunnel. Specifically, the critical ventilation velocity that is just sufficient to prevent the formation of a reverse stratified layer is simulated for two tunnels of different size. The computer code is verified by checking the computed velocity profile against experimental measurements. The CFD results show the leveling-off of the critical ventilation velocity as the heat release rate surpasses a certain value. At this critical ventilation, the ceiling temperature above the fire reaches a maximum for both tunnels. The velocity leveling-off can be explained from this observation. An extended correlation of Newman (Combust. Flame 57 (1984) 33) is applied to the temperature profiles obtained by CFD. At the critical ventilation, temperature stratification exists downstream from the fire. The computed critical ventilation velocity shows fair agreement with available experimental data taken from both horizontal and inclined fire tunnels. The CFD simulations indicate that the Froude modeling is an approximation for tunnel fires. The Froude-scaling law does not apply to two geometrically similar fire tunnels. The CFD results are compared with two simple theories of critical ventilation by Kennedy et al. (ASHRAE Trans. Res. 102(2) (1996) 40) and Kunsch (Fire safety J. 37 (2002) 67).     

Study of the critical velocity in tunnels with longitudinal ventilation and spray systems

Based on the Froude similarity law, a small-scale tunnel model (1/14) was built based in this study to investigate critical velocities of tunnels. Critical velocity is the minimum air velocity required to resist the spread of smoke from a fire upstream in a tunnel. A set of experiments was conducted to investigate the critical velocities under different experimental conditions by varying the heat release rate of the fire, ambient temperature, operating pressure and arrangement of the nozzles. The results of the tests with no spray indicated that the ambient temperature has little impact on the critical velocity. Moreover, based on the dimensionless analysis method, a new correlation was established to predict the critical velocities in the tunnel without Water spray-based Fixed Fire Fighting Systems (WFFFS). The accuracy of the correlation was illustrated by the results of the present tests and a number of tests on different scales published by other scholars. Furthermore, 60 tests with WFFFS activation were carried out. The results show that the critical velocity is significantly reduced after the water spray discharged from the nozzles. The maximum reduction of the critical velocity is approximately 31%. The reduction of the critical velocity strongly depends on the number, positions and operating pressures of the nozzles. The mechanisms of the reduction of the critical velocity caused by spraying were discussed. The cooling effect of the water droplets on hot gas is not the only mechanism for decreasing the critical velocity caused by spraying. Spraying increases the inertial force of the longitudinal airflow and is the other mechanism for the reduction.     

Theoretical and Experimental Study of Critical Velocity for Smoke Control in a Tunnel Cross-Passage

Theoretical analyses and model-scale experiments have been conducted to investigate the critical velocity in a tunnel cross-passage which is defined as the minimum ventilation velocity through the fireproof door to prevent smoke from flowing into a cross-passage. The effect of the fireproof door geometry, heat release rate, ventilation velocity and fire source location were taken into account. The critical velocity in a tunnel cross-passage varies approximately as 3/2 power of the fireproof door height, as one-third power of the heat release rate and as exponential law of the ventilation velocity, almost independent of the fireproof door width. The critical Froude Number mainly ranges from 5 to 10 and consequently as it is not a constant value it is not very suitable to predict the critical velocity in a tunnel cross-passage. A dimensionless correlation that can correlate well with the experimental data was proposed.     

Position of Maximum Ceiling Temperature in a Tunnel Fire

The position of the maximum ceiling gas temperature indicates how far the fire plum could be blown away by a ventilation flow. It could be applied to estimate the activation of a detection system or a sprinkler system, or to estimate the range of damage to the tunnel structure. An equation for predicting the position of the maximum ceiling gas temperature in a tunnel fire is proposed based on a theoretical analysis and validated using both laboratory test data and full scale test data. A flame angle has been defined based on the position of the maximum ceiling temperature in a tunnel fire. The flame angle is directly related to the dimensionless ventilation velocity, and it becomes insensitive to the heat release rate for a large tunnel fire. Further, it is found that a constant critical flame angle exists, defined as the flame angle under the critical condition when the backlayering just disappears. For a given tunnel and fire source, the flame angle under critical conditions is the same value, independent of heat release rate, and the maximum ceiling temperature under critical conditions always corresponds to the same position. Generally the horizontal distance between the position of the maximum ceiling temperature and the fire source centre is around 1.5 times the effective tunnel height under the critical condition.     

The maximum temperature of buoyancy-driven smoke flow beneath the ceiling in tunnel fires

In order to detect a fire and provide adequate fire protection to a tunnel structure, the maximum gas temperature beneath the ceiling to which the structure is exposed needs to be estimated. Theoretical analysis of maximum gas temperature beneath a tunnel ceiling based on a plume theory is given. The heat release rate, longitudinal ventilation velocity and tunnel geometry are taken into account. Two series of model-scale experimental tests were also carried out. The results of both analysis and experiments show that the maximum excess gas temperature beneath the ceiling can be divided into two regions. When the dimensionless ventilation velocity is greater than 0.19, the maximum excess gas temperature beneath the tunnel ceiling increases linearly with the heat release rate and decreases linearly with the longitudinal ventilation velocity. When the dimensionless ventilation velocity is less than 0.19, the maximum excess gas temperature beneath the ceiling varies as the two-thirds power of the dimensionless heat release rate, independent of the longitudinal ventilation velocity. In both regions, the maximum excess gas temperature varies as the −5/3 power of the vertical distance between the fire source bottom and tunnel ceiling. The investigation presented here considers only the cases when the continuous flame region is lower than the ceiling height.     

Critical velocity and burning rate in pool fire during longitudinal ventilation

Since the prediction of ‘critical velocity’ is important to control the smoke in tunnel fires, many researches have been carried out to predict critical velocity with various fire sizes, tunnel shape, tunnel slope, and so forth. But few researches have been conducted to estimate critical ventilation velocity for varied burning rate by longitudinal ventilation, although burning rate of fuel is influenced by ventilation conditions. Therefore, there is a need to investigate the difference of upstream smoke layer (e.g., backlayering) between naturally ventilated heat release rate and varied heat release rate by longitudinal ventilation.In this study, the 1/20 reduced-scale experiments using Froude scaling are conducted to examine the difference of backlayering between naturally ventilated heat release rate and varied heat release rate by longitudinal ventilation. And the experimental results obtained are compared with numerical ones. Three-dimensional simulations of smoke flow in the tunnel fire with the measured burning rates have been carried out using Fire Dynamics Simulator; Ver. 406 code, which is developed by National Institute of Standards and Technology. They show a good degree of agreement, even if some deviation in temperature downstream of the fire is evident. Since ventilation velocity had a greater enhancing effect on the burning rate of fuel due to oxygen supply effect, the critical ventilation velocity should be calculated on the basis of varied HRR by ventilation velocity.