The reduction of boar taint in male pigs by neonatal testosterone administration

Ten neonatal male pigs were treated with 100 mg of testosterone propionate, and the effects of the treatment on endocrine function, carcass fatness, meat and fat composition were studied. No important changes were found in carcass fatness or in chemical composition of the M. longissimus dorsi. Fatty acid composition of the backfat was modified in the treated pigs, with a decrease in palmitoleic (P < 0·001) and oleic (P < 0·05) acids and an increase in stearic acid (P < 0·05); consequently, the fat had a higher melting point (P < 0·05). Neonatal treatment with testosterone propionate led to a decrease in testicle weight (P < 0·05), testosterone concentration (P < 0·05) and luteinizing hormone (LH) secretion in the hypophysis (P < 0·001). Histological evidence of modification of the intertubular area in the testicle was found (P < 0·001). Decrease of endocrine secretion in the testes led to a reduction in the levels of detectable boar taint in treated animals, as assessed by sensory evaluation.     

Emulsion Stability and Sensory Quality of Beef Frankfurters Produced at Different Fat or Peanut Oil Levels

Frankfurters were produced at 12, 20 and 29% fat levels using beef fat or 60% substitution with peanut oil. Less emulsion stability, lower smokehouse yield and lower sensory juiciness scores were found as final fat content of beef frankfurters was lowered to 12%. Firmness, darkening of external color, and flavor intensity were enhanced in the low fat product. Frankfurters with 60% fat as peanut oil exhibited comparable emulsion stability and sensory quality parameters with no rancid flavor development over a period of 6 weeks at 4°C. They were as acceptable to sensory panels as the 29% beef fat frankfurters. Substitution of 60% of the beef fat with peanut oil resulted in a product with significantly (P < 0.05) less cholesterol content.     

Effects of replacing pork back fat with vegetable oils and rice bran fiber on the quality of reduced-fat frankfurters

The effects of substituting olive, grape seed, corn, canola, or soybean oil and rice bran fiber on the chemical composition, cooking characteristics, fatty acid composition, and sensory properties of low-fat frankfurters were investigated. Ten percent of the total fat content of frankfurters with a total fat content of 30% (control) was partially replaced by one of the vegetable oils to reduce the pork fat content by 10%. The moisture and ash content of low-fat frankfurters with vegetable oil and rice bran fiber were all higher than the control (P < 0.05). Low-fat frankfurters had reduced-fat content, energy values, cholesterol and trans-fat levels, and increased pH, cooking yield and TBA values compared to the controls (P < 0.05). Low-fat frankfurters with reduced-fat content plus rice bran fiber had sensory properties similar to control frankfurters containing pork fat.     

Effect of dietary fish oil on fatty acid composition, lipid oxidation and sensory property of chicken frankfurters during storage

Broilers fed with three levels of fish oil (0, 2 and 4%) for 6 weeks were used in the manufacture of chicken frankfurters. The meat samples were vacuum-packed and stored at 0°C for 0, 10, 20 and 30 days. Cooking yield, proximate and fatty acid composition, lipid oxidation, microbial and sensory properties of the meat products were measured. Cooking yield, moisture, fat, protein, ash and cholesterol contents of frankfurters were not affected (P>0.05) by levels of dietary fish oil. Frankfurters processed from chickens fed diets enriched with 2 and 4% of supplemental fish oil had a higher (P<0.05) level of n-3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid), but had a lower level of n-6 fatty acids (P<0.05) than the controls (0% fish oil). TBA values and pH values of meat samples were not affected (P>0.05) by levels of supplemental fish oil in the diets, however, pH values of the vacuum-packaged chicken frankfurters decreased (P<0.05) as the storage time increased. No differences (P>0.05) in total anaerobic plate counts were observed among the fish oil treatments during storage. Supplementation of 2 and 4% fish oil in the diets did not increase (P>0.05) the intensity of fishy flavor in chicken frankfurters.     

EFFECTS OF AN AUTOLYZED YEAST ON PHYSICAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF FRANKFURTERS

Three experiments were conducted to determine effects of autolyzed yeast on frankfurter firmness, flavor, and yields. Smokehouse yields of laboratory prepared frankfurters (Experiment #1) were not affected (P < 0.05) by addition of autolyzed yeast (1%). Commercially produced frankfurters containing 0%, 1.0%, or 1.5% yeast (Experiment #2) or 0%, 0.75% or 1.0% yeast (Experiment #3) were subjected to sensory and yield evaluations. Frankfurters from Experiment #2, with 1% autolyzed yeast were more firm (P < .10) than control frankfurters. Frankfurters from Experiment #3 with 0.75% and 1.0% autolyzed yeast were more firm (P < .01, P < .10) than controls. Vacuum packaged frankfurters containing yeast (Experiments #2 and #3), held 2, 4, or 6 weeks at 2–5°C, had less purge than their respective controls. Autolyzed yeast appeaers to enhance frankfurter flavor and firmness while reducing purge in vacuum packaged product.     

Physical, chemical and organoleptic characteristics of Turkish style frankfurters made with an emulsion containing Turkish soy flour

The possibility of using Turkish Defatted Soy Flour (DSF) to replace part of the meat in Turkish style frankfurters was studied and the technological, physical, chemical, nutritional, sensory and quality characteristics of these sausages produced under Turkish conditions were determined. No significant difference in physical and sensory properties between the control group (all meat) and treatment groups (5, 10 and 20% soy flour) was found. DSF up to the level used significantly (P > 0·01) increased moisture and protein and decreased fat levels of the sausages. The amino acid and PER results also indicated that replacing meat with DSF in sausages did not significantly alter the nutritional value of the sausages.     

ADDITION OF DRY- AND WET-MILLED CORN GERM FLOURS TO MODEL SYSTEM FRANKFURTERS OF THREE FAT LEVELS1

Chemical, physical and sensory properties of cooked frankfurters of three fat levels with 0 and 3.5% dry-milled corn germ (DMG) flour and 0 and 3.5% wet-milled corn germ (WMG) flour added were investigated. As fat level increased, cooking losses increased and Instron compression values decreased, in cooked frankfurters with DMG and WMG flours. Addition of DMG flour decreased fat content and lightness (L) and increased yellowness (b-value) of cooked frankfurters. Sensory evaluation indicated that DMG flour in frankfurters decreased tenderness, juiciness and cured flavor intensity. The addition of DMG flour increased chewiness of frankfurters. WMG flour addition decreased fat and protein contents and lightness (L) and increased hue angle (due to higher b), Instron compression values and cooking loss. Cured flavor intensity decreased and off-flavor intensity increased with the addition of WMG flour to frankfurters.     

Cottonseed Proteins in Frankfurters: Effect on pH, Cured Color, and Sensory and Physical Properties

Frankfurter-type sausages were made in which 5%, 10%, or 15% of the meat was replaced with the following cottonseed-derived protein products: genetically glandless cottonseed flour (CF); liquid cyclone processed deglanded cottonseed flour (LCPC); genetically glandless cottonseed storage protein isolate (CI). All-meat controls (0% cottonseed protein additive) were formulated at each replacement level with fat contents equivalent to those of the cottonseed protein-added frankfurters. Compared to all-meat controls, frankfurters made with increasing levels of cottonseed proteins generally had higher pH values, less cured color, less firmness of skin, softer texture, and were less desirable as judged by sensory panels. At the 10% and 15% replacement levels, frankfurters containing LCPC, had significantly (P < 0.05) lower scores for external and internal visual color, overall satisfaction and bioyield and rupture force values than did Cl-added frankfurters. Simple correlation coefficients suggest that significantly (P < 0.05) correlated responses exist within and across replacement levels between pH and sensory panel scores, Instron values and visual color scores.     

Sensory and Physical Attributes of Frankfurters with Reduced Fat and Elevated Monounsaturated Fats

Instrumental and sensory evaluations were conducted on frankfurters manufactured with an increased monounsaturated/saturated (M/S) lipid ratio and 25% less fat than control. The M/S ratio was altered by using lean and fat from pigs fed 0%, 10%, or 20% canola oil (CO) which is high in oleic acid. Incorporation of 10% and 20% CO pork tissue into the product decreased saturated fat by 11.0% and 18.6%, respectively. Instron texture analysis indicated slight increases in cohesiveness with elevated CO, whereas decreasing fat increased gumminess and chewiness. Sensory evaluation demonstrated that the overall palatability ratings of the test frankfurters were similar to the control product. Frankfurters with significantly less total fat and saturated fatty acids without adverse sensory and storage characteristics were produced.     

Fatty acid composition of subcutaneous fat of sheep grazed on eight different pastures

The levels of eight long chain fatty acids (14:0, 16:0, 16:1 17:0, 17:1, 18:0, 18:1, 18:2) were measured in the subcutaneous fat of S.A. Mutton Merino wethers (5 months old, 20-25 kg live mass, 8 per treatment) and, including 18:3, in eight pastures grazed for 84 days (maize stubble, Z. mays; Triticale; L. multiflorum; L. perenne; D. glomerata; D. eriantha; C. dactylon; M. sativa). Respectively, percentage fatty acid contents of subcutaneous fat and pastures were 14:0 5·04 ± 0·86 and 0·67 ± 0·37, 16:0 22·85 ± 0·81 and 17·83 ± 3·00, 16:1 2·07 ± 0·22 and 2·42 ± 1·17, 17:0, 1·68 ± 0·04 and 0·42 ± 0·16, 17:1 0·75 ± 0·06 and 0·17 ± 0·19, 18:0 25·94 ± 2·02 and 4·95 ± 1·68, 18:1 32·27 ± 0·93 and 8·12 ± 11·70, 18:2 1·59 ± 0·36 and 15·89 ± 5·16, 18:3 measured in pastures only 34·51 ± 15·91. The palmitoleic acid (16:1) content of pastures increased (P < 0·05) as the ether extractable lipid content of the pastures increased. Pasture treatments influenced the levels of 14:0, 17:1 and 18:2 highly significantly (P < 0·01) and of 18:0 significantly (P < 0·05). Increasing levels of fatness of ribcut samples were associated with a decrease in 14:0 and an increase in 17:1 (P < 0·01) and an increase in 18:2 (P < 0·05).     

Effects of oestradiol-17β implantation on performance, carcass traits, meat sensory traits and endocrine aspects of bulls and steers

Twenty-eight Simmental bull calves were randomly allotted to one of three treatments at birth. Ten bulls (IB) and nine steers (IS), castrated within 3 days of birth, were implanted with oestradiol (E(2)). The remaining calves were non-implanted, control bulls (CB). Calves were implanted within 3 days of birth and at 200-day intervals until slaughter at 14·8 months of age and at a mean carcass weight of 381·6 kg. Blood samples were taken every 14 days from 9·8 through 14·8 months and serum was analyzed for E(2) and testosterone (T) levels. Carcasses were chilled in a 3 to 7°C cooler. Carcass data were obtained and aged longissimus dorsi steaks were evaluated by a trained sensory panel and a Warner-Bratzler shear (WBS) device. Scrotal circumferences were smaller (P < 0·0.5) for IB than for CB. Control bulls had heavier weaning weights (P < 0·05) than IB and higher (P < 0·05) feedlot gains than IS. Implanted steers required more (P < 0·05) feed/unit of gain than CB and IB. Implanting bulls with E(2) increased (P < 0·05) serum E(2) levels and tended (P < 0·10) to reduce T levels. Serum E(2) in IS and IB were drastically increased (P < 0·05) for 4 to 6 weeks following re-implantation during the feedlot phase, then sharply declined. Implanted steer carcasses had more youthful maturity scores than CB carcasses. The incidence of hear ring (dark, coarse, band formation) was greater (P < 0·05) for IB than for IS, probably because of the thinner fat cover (P < 0·05) on IB. Ribeye areas were smaller (P < 0·05) and yield grades were higher for IS than for CB. Testicle weights were not significantly different between IB and CB, although variability was greater for IB. Carcass masculinity was least (P < 0·05) for IS, and IB were less (P < 0·05) masculine than CB. The only difference in longissimus dorsi sensory traits was that steaks from IB were juicier than steaks from CB. Also, WBS values were lower (P < 0·05) for IS than for CB.     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n = 25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P < 0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5–3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

Effect of varying salt and fat levels on the sensory and physiochemical quality of frankfurters

The sensory and physiochemical properties of frankfurters with varying fat and salt levels were investigated. Twenty frankfurter formulations were produced with varying concentrations of fat (10%, 15%, 20%, 25% w/w) and salt (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, 3% w/w). Frankfurters were assessed instrumentally for colour, moisture, fat, cooking loss and texture profile analysis. Consumers (n=25) evaluated each product in duplicate for colour, coarseness, tenderness, juiciness, salt taste, meat flavour, off-flavour and overall acceptability using a hedonic scale. Salt levels below 1.5% were shown to have a negative effect on consumer acceptability, with 2.5% salt concentration being the most accepted (P<0.001) by consumers. However, frankfurters containing the lower fat levels 10% and 15% fat with higher salt levels (2.5-3%) were significantly the most acceptable variants to consumers. Samples containing less fat and salt were found to be tougher, less juicy and had greater cooking losses. Thus salt perception is very important for consumer acceptability, but fat levels can be potentially reduced without significantly affecting overall acceptability.     

Optimizing palm oil and palm stearin utilization for sensory and textural properties of chicken frankfurters

This study was designed to explore the potential of refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm oil (PO) and palm stearin (POs) utilization in chicken frankfurters. A 10 points augmented simplex-centroid design was used to study the effect of chicken fat (CF), PO and POs as well as the interaction of these fats on the emulsion, textural and sensory properties of chicken frankfurters. All frankfurters were formulated to contain approx 25% fat, 52% moisture and 10% protein. No significant difference was found in end chopping temperatures of all meat batters even though the temperature of PO and POs upon incorporation into meat batters was 50°C higher than CF. Strong emulsions were formed as no fluid losses were observed in all the meat batters tested after heating. Texture profiles of the frankfurters containing PO and/or CF were quite similar, but increment of POs raised hardness, chewiness, and shear hardness of the frankfurters. Acceptability of the frankfurters was evaluated using hedonic test. Panelists found no difference in hardness preference between frankfurters made from totally CF and PO, while frankfurters made from POs were rated as hard and brittle. CF was important in determining acceptability of the frankfurters, as reduction of CF in formulation resulted in lower scores in chicken flavor, juiciness, oiliness and overall acceptance of the frankfurters. Frankfurters with sensory acceptability comparable to a commercial one were found to comprise of more than 17% CF, and less than 67% PO and 17% POs of the fat blend.     

Effects of interesterified vegetable oils and sugarbeet fiber on the quality of frankfurters

The effects of interesterified vegetable oils (IVOs) prepared from palm, cottonseed and olive oil, respectively, and sugarbeet fiber (SBF) on quality of frankfurters have been studied. Beef fat (10%) was replaced by one of the IVOs for 60% and 100%. Incorporation of IVOs in frankfurters improved the nutritional content of product due to altering the fatty acid composition. The oleic acid content of frankfurters increased from 28.76% to 45.57% and 47.15% as the interesterified palm oil (IPO) and interesterified olive oil (IOO) contents increased from 0% to 10% and 6%, respectively. The linoleic acid contents of 6% and 10% interesterified cottonseed oil (ICO) added frankfurters were, respectively, 10- and 19.6-fold higher than treatments without ICO. Addition of SBF (<425 μm size and 1% level) significantly increased (p<0.05) the total dietary fiber content and water-holding capacity (WHC) of frankfurters. Incorporation of IVOs and SBF did not lead to significant changes in appearance, colour, texture, flavour or sensory scores. It is concluded that IVOs and SBF may be successfully applied as beef fat substitute in frankfurters since this combination offset some of the changes brought about by beef fat replacement.     

Sodium lactate and protective culture effects on quality characteristics and shelf-life of low-fat frankfurters produced with olive oil

Low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein) were produced with olive oil and four levels of sodium lactate (0, 1, 2, 3%). The level of sodium lactate affected (p < 0.05) moisture and ash content, processing yield, skin strength and saltiness of low-fat frankfurters. Sodium lactate at 2% level appeared to be more beneficial for the production of low-fat frankfurters with olive oil. It had the highest score for flavour intensity and did not negatively affect skin strength, lextural and sensory properties or the colour of frankfurters. Low-fat frankfurters (9% fat, 13% protein) with olive oil, produced with 0% and 2% sodium lactate (SL) and protective culture (PC) and stored under vacuum at 4 °C, were compared with high-fat frankfurters (27% all animal fat, 11% protein). Low-fat frankfurters with olive oil had higher (p < 0.05) moisture and lower (p < 0.05) brine concentration than high-fat frankfurters. PC extended shelf-life of low-fat frankfurters with olive oil from 3 to 4 weeks. 2% SL kept the pH of frankfurters almost constant and extended shelf-life up to 6 weeks compared with 3 and 4 weeks shelf-life for low-fat and high-fat control frankfurters, respectively.     

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW-FAT FRANKFURTERS MANUFACTURED WITH POTATO STARCH, FINELY GROUND TOASTED BREAD AND RICE BRAN

Low-fat frankfurters (10% fat, 13% protein) were produced with 3.0% potato starch, finely ground toasted bread and rice bran or their combination. No differences (P > 0.05) were found in processing yield and purge accumulation among treatments of tested ingredients. Potato starch (3.0%) significantly increased the lightness, hardness and skin strength of low-fat frankfurters. Finely ground toasted bread had the highest scores for visual color, external redness, flavor intensity and overall acceptability and improved (P < 0.05) skin strength of frankfurters in comparison to potato starch. Low-fat frankfurters with 3.0% rice bran had the same (P>0.05) visual color scores, redness and textural properties as those produced with potato starch and toasted bread, but lower (P < 0.05) flavor intensity and overall acceptability and were judged as "just acceptable". Decreasing the rice bran from 3.0 to 1.5% and using it in combination with toasted bread (0.75%) and potato starch (0.75%) had an insignificant effect on the flavor intensity and overall acceptability of low-fat frankfurters.     

Properties of Low-Fat Frankfurters Containing Monounsaturated and Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Oils

Properties of low-fat (<18%) frankfurters containing high-oleic acid sunflower oil (HOSO) and fish oil were studied. Replacement of animal fats by the oils had little effect on emulsion stability. Frankfurters with 5% fish oil had very low sensory scores due to undesirable fish flavor. Incorporation of maximum amounts of HOSO into low-fat beef/pork and all-beef frankfurters increased oleic acid by 34% and 62%, respectively, and the monounsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio by 178% and 468%, respectively, compared to a regular (30% fat) product containing only animal fats. Sensory evaluation and instrumental texture profile analysis showed that the reduction in total fat caused texture problems, especially increased firmness and springiness and decreased juiciness.     

Physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters as affected by walnut and fat content

This study evaluates the physicochemical and sensory properties of healthier frankfurters with 25% added walnut (WF) versus low-fat frankfurters (6% pork fat) (LF) and traditional frankfurters (18% pork fat) (NF). Results reveal that cooking losses were unaffected (p ? 0.05) by the formulation of frankfurters. The addition of walnut led to higher (p < 0.05) redness and yellowness values, while colour parameters did not differ significantly between LF and NF sausages. Frankfurters with added walnut (WF) presented higher (p < 0.05) hardness and chewiness values than LF and NF frankfurters. Differences in composition were also accompanied by changes in the microstructure of the gel/emulsions. Frankfurters with added walnut presented a flavour significantly different from meat and scored lower (p < 0.05) on texture preferences. However, all frankfurters scored the same for overall acceptability.     

添加蓝莓发酵汁对法兰克福香肠抗氧化及感官品质的影响

研究蓝莓发酵汁（fermented blueberry juice,FBJ）对法兰克福香肠脂肪和蛋白氧化的抑制能力以及对其感官品质的影响。将不同质量分数的FBJ加入法兰克福香肠中,研究其对香肠贮藏过程中硫代巴比妥酸反应产物含量和羰基含量的影响,以及对香肠色泽、pH值、质构和感官评分的影响。结果表明：添加质量分数2%、4%、6%的FBJ均能够有效抑制法兰克福香肠在加工和贮藏期间脂肪和蛋白的氧化,并且在贮藏后期效果优于添加质量分数0.05%异抗坏血酸钠的香肠（P＜0.05）;添加FBJ的法兰克福香肠红度值、黄度值均显著高于对照组（P＜0.05）,但是硬度显著低于对照组（P＜0.05）,弹性没有显著差异（P＞0.05）;此外,电子鼻和感官实验中,各FBJ组与对照组的风味能明显区分开,其感官评价结果也显著优于对照组,尤其是添加质量分数4% FBJ的法兰克福香肠综合评分最高。本研究结果证明FBJ是较好的抗氧化剂,可以有效抑制法兰克福香肠加工和贮藏过程中的脂肪和蛋白质氧化,同时能够改善法兰克福香肠的感官品质。