Effects of early maternal employment on toddlers, mothers, and fathers.

Investigated the effects of early maternal employment on toddler development and mothers' and fathers' parenting styles using a family system orientation. The 75 families with firstborn 20-mo-olds varied in maternal employment status (nonemployed, part-, and full-time). Observations were conducted of qualitative dimensions of parent–child relationships (toddler–mother and toddler–father attachment and child–parent problem-solving behavior), quantitative dimensions of family time allocation, and parental childrearing attitudes. Each mother had been employed outside the home prior to the baby's birth. 24 mothers had not been employed since the birth of their children; 23 mothers were employed part-time. Results indicate that maternal employment was not related to toddler outcomes (security of attachment or problem-solving behavior). It was related to the amount of time mothers spent with their children and to some childrearing attitudes and behaviors of fathers and mothers. Findings highlight the importance of examining direct (mother–child) and indirect (father–child) effects in the study of early maternal employment and the ability of families to adapt to a variety of lifestyles. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting parent–child interactions from children's activity level.

Examined the relationship between children's activity level and parent–child (P–C) interactions in 117 preschool children and their parents. Four P–C combinations (mother–daughter, father–daughter, mother–son, and father–son) were studied. Using R. Q. Bell's (see record 1968-08747-001) conceptualization of upper and lower limit parental control behavior, it was predicted that P–C interactions involving active children would be marked by more strife and conflict than P–C interactions involving more quiescent, less active children. Parents of highly active children tended to intrude physically and could be described as getting into power struggles and competition with their children. Impatience or hostility toward active children was observed in parents of all P–C pairings except the father–son combination. In contrast, interactions involving less active children were generally peaceful and harmonious. (28 ref)-008 6504 (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in functions of three relations during adolescence.

Three functions of interpersonal relations (attempt at behavior control, intimacy, and nurture) were assessed in friendship, mother–child, and father–child relations of adolescents to examine age, relational, sex, and mother–father differences. 60 female and 60 male 4th, 7th, and 10th graders and undergraduates rated 8 statements that portrayed interpersonal interactions for each relationship to indicate how closely the statements described Ss' actual interpersonal relations. Parents exerted greater control than friends across grades. Intimacy in friendship was lower than in parent–child relations at 4th grade, but it surpassed the parent level by 10th grade. Nurturance remained relatively consistent and high across grades for parents, whereas it increased with increasing age of adolescents in friendship. Female friendship involved higher intimacy than male friendship. Only males perceived fathers to be more nurturant than mothers. Results are interpreted in terms of their consistency with the Piagetian/relational framework of social development and their implications for research concerning parental and peer conformity in adolescent socialization. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parental concordance on child rearing and the interactive emphases of parents: Sex-differentiated relationships during the preschool years.

An objective index of parental concordance on child-rearing values was generated in families of 3-year-old children by comparing the independent responses of 70 parent dyads with the set of 91 Child-rearing Practices Report (CRPR) Q-items. The CRPR agreement index was then related to mother–child and father–child structured interaction observed 2 years later in a structured interaction situation. In families of boys, concordance on child rearing was positively associated with parental education. Relations between parental value concordance and parents' interactive emphases were more readily apparent for parents of boys than for parents of girls, with the largest number of correlates obtained in the mother–son dyad. In the sample of boys, converging parental value systems were associated with a maternal interactive style characterized by permissive control strategies, nonauthoritarianism, indirectness of maternal communication, resourcefulness, and by an absence of intrusive and competitive maternal behaviors. In the mother–son dyad, reliable relationships between the CRPR agreement index and maternal interactive behaviors continued to be observed after controlling for mother's education. When the interactive correlates of parental value concordance were compared across the four parent–child dyads, the father–daughter dyad was described as being particularly different from the other three dyads. The implications of these results for the understanding of marriage–parenting relationships as moderated by sex are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood origins of psychopathology.

Discusses family interaction and genetic influences on the development of psychopathology in childhood. Mounting evidence suggests that genetic factors significantly influence most personality traits, most forms of psychopathology, and sex differences in the prevalence of psychopathology. The sex and temperamental characteristics of children affect parent–child interaction as does the strength of the allegiance pressures emanating from a mother and father locked in hostile conflict. Children who are opposite to the sex of the more powerful parent experience the greatest allegiance conflict and consequent psychopathology. Also moderating the pathogenic effects of parental conflict are consistency of parental love and the ruthlessness of efforts to win the child's allegiance. The practical implications of these views are discussed. (3l ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of a playgroup experience on mother–son and father–son interaction.

Compared the mother–son and father–son interaction of 6 toddlers who were completely homereared with the parent–child interactions of 6 male toddlers who were participants in a daily 3-hr playgroup. Interactions were videotaped in a semistructured laboratory setting. The first observation was made immediately before the beginning of the playgroup experience, with subsequent observations being made after half of the toddlers had been in a playgroup for 3 and 6 mo. Although there were no differences in the playgroup and homecare toddlers before the playgroup experience, significant differences were found after the playgroup experience. The playgroup toddlers became proportionally more active in their parent–child interactions. They also became more responsive to the interaction initiations of their parents. Significant differences were also found in parental behavior as a function of the playgroup experience. The parents of the playgroup children became significantly less dominant. In addition, some differences were found in mother–child and father–child interaction independent of the playgroup experience. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychometric properties of family members' reports of parental physical aggression toward clinic-referred children.

This study examined (a) differences among mothers', fathers', and children's reports of parental physical aggression toward children; (b) the reliability and validity of family members' reports of aggression using confirmatory factor analysis; and (c) the discriminant validity of the construct of mother–child and father–child aggression. Participants were 72 dual-parent families in which the parents were seeking clinical services for their children's (ages 7–9 years) conduct behavior problems. Each participant completed the parent–child version of the Conflict Tactics Scale (P-CTS). Results indicate that children reported lower levels of mother–child and father–child aggression than either mothers or fathers reported. Although the reliability (total systematic variance accounted for by observed variables) of family members' reports on the P-CTS ranged from moderate to high, convergent validity was generally low. The constructs of mother–child and father–child aggression were highly correlated but could be distinguished from each other when relationships among rater effects were considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conflict in the Latino parent-youth dyad: The role of emotional support from the opposite parent.

In the present study, the author examined the independent and interactive effects of support and conflict within a triadic familial context (mother-father-youth). The sample consisted of 6th- and 7th-grade inner-city Latino youths (N = 329; 142 boys, 187 girls). Using multiple regression techniques, level of conflict with either mother or father was consistently related to higher levels of both boys' and girls' internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Interaction effects were significant in predicting boys' externalizing behavior problems--a supportive parental relationship significantly reduced the risk associated with high conflict with the opposite parent. For boys' internalizing problems, mother and father support served a protective function regardless of the level of conflict with the opposite parent. Conflict with the mother was especially detrimental for Latina girls--highly conflictive mother-daughter relationships were associated with increased internalizing and externalizing symptomatology, and father support added little in predicting symptomatology. The study adds to the understanding of risk and protection in Latino families and underscores the importance of examining the parent-youth relationship from a triadic perspective, noting similarities and differences in mother-son, mother-daughter, father-son, and father-daughter relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early human experience: A family perspective.

Reviews recent research on the father–infant relationship. Those studies documenting changes in parent and infant behavior when the mother–infant dyad is transformed into the mother–father–infant triad are especially important to the study of early human experience, since they highlight the influence of the marital relationship on the parent–infant relationship. These investigations of "2nd-order effects" document the fact that inclusion of the father in the study of infancy creates a family system composed of marital and parent–child relations. The need for "wedding" the disciplines of family sociology and developmental psychology in their respective concerns for marital and parent–infant relationships is emphasized, and a transactional framework for examining early experience in the family system is proposed. Evidence from family sociology and developmental psychology is reviewed to illuminate influences within the family system during infancy and to stimulate interdisciplinary investigation. (3? ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mother–father–infant interaction: A naturalistic observational study.

Investigated infant preferences for interaction with mother vs father, similarities and differences in maternal and paternal behavior, and the influence of a 2nd parent's presence on parent–infant interaction. 40 middle-class families with 15-mo-old infants were observed in their own homes on 2 separate weekdays, for 2 hrs/day. Analysis revealed more similarities than differences in maternal and paternal behavior, limited preferences for interaction with same-sex children, and more active parenting when alone with the child than when in the presence of the spouse. Infant behavior was similarly influenced by social situation, with more social behavior directed toward each parent when alone with them. Finally, covariance analysis revealed that displayed general preferences for interaction with father were primarily a function of parental behavior. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depleted parental psychological resources as mediators of the association of income with adherence and metabolic control.

For adolescents with Type 1 diabetes, lower family income may be associated with poorer diabetes management through depleted parental psychological resources (i.e., higher parental depressive symptoms, lower parental acceptance). Adolescents (N = 252; 46% male) aged 10–14 years with Type 1 diabetes assessed the acceptance of their mother and father (e.g., “gives me the feeling that she likes me as I am”; “she doesn't feel she has to make me over into someone else”). Mothers provided information on family income and demographics. Both mothers and fathers reported their depressive symptoms. HbA1c scores were indexed via medical records. Lower family income was associated with higher (i.e., worse) HbA1c, more mother and father depressive symptoms, and less acceptance from both parents. Mediation analyses revealed that the relationship of lower family income with metabolic control occurred indirectly through lower maternal and paternal acceptance and lower adherence. Lower family income may impair the quality of parent—adolescent relationships that are beneficial for good diabetes management. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental links of adolescent disclosure, parental solicitation, and control with delinquency: Moderation by parental support.

This 4-wave study among 309 Dutch adolescents and their parents examined changes in adolescent disclosure, parental solicitation, and parental control and their links with the development of delinquent activities. Annually, adolescents and both parents reported on adolescent disclosure, parental solicitation, and parental control, and adolescents reported on delinquent activities and parental support. Latent growth curve analyses revealed a linear decline in parental control between ages 13 and 16. Adolescent disclosure decreased gradually in adolescent reports and showed an L-shaped pattern in father reports and a V-shaped pattern in mother reports. A stronger increase in delinquent activities was related to a stronger decrease in disclosure in mother and adolescent reports and to lower levels of disclosure in father reports. The linkages between levels of disclosure and delinquent activities were stronger in families with high parental support than in families with lower support. Furthermore, in lower parental support families, a stronger decrease in paternal control was related to a stronger increase in delinquent activities. In high parental support families, however, a stronger decrease in adolescent-reported parental control was related to a less strong increase in delinquent activities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The mediating role of extreme peer orientation in the relationships between adolescent–parent relationship and diabetes management.

The study examined whether the quality of the adolescent–parent relationship was associated with better diabetes management in adolescents with Type 1 diabetes by decreasing adolescents' extreme peer orientation. Adolescents (n = 252; 46% male and 54% female) aged 10 to 14 years with Type 1 diabetes completed assessments of extreme peer orientation (i.e., tendency to ignore parental advice and diabetes care to fit in with friends), adolescent–parental relationship, and adherence; HbA1c scores indexed metabolic control. Adolescents with higher quality relationships with parents reported less peer orientation and better diabetes care. The mediational model revealed that adolescents' high quality relationships with their parents (mother and father) were associated with better treatment adherence and metabolic control through less peer orientation. It is likely that high quality adolescent–parent relationships may be beneficial to adolescent diabetes management through a healthy balance between peer and parental influence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concordance in Attachment States of Mind and Styles With Respect to Fathers and Mothers.

It is believed that by adulthood, independent attachments to the mother and the father coalesce into a single state of mind with respect to attachment. If true, states of mind with respect to mothers and fathers should be concordant. Fifty-six young adults were administered two versions of the Adult Attachment Interview, each of which asked about their relationship with one parent. State of mind with respect to the father was significantly related to state of mind with respect to the mother, as were attachment styles regarding the two parents. Perceptions of attachment styles were not very related to corresponding states of mind but were related to inferred loving from a parent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex role learning and interview communication.

In a study with 32 female undergraduates, Ss who differed on a measure of parental identification discussed public and private areas of experience during dyadic interviews. Supporting the assumption that fathers are crucial to the expressive-role development of daughters, Ss who identified primarily with their father rather than with their mother were more personally disclosing overall and talked longer and maintained greater spontaneity on private topics. Contrary to expectation, daughters who identified with conventional-role parents vs sex-role reversed parents did not differ in expressive behaviors. Daughters who modeled after conventional-role mothers were least expressive with their interviewer, however. Implications of sex role identification in the counseling relationship are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of gender in family evaluations: A comparison of trained and untrained observer perceptions of matriarchal and patriarchal family interviews.

Examined how training and experience, family roles, and gender of observed family leadership affect ratings of both family and individual parent functioning. Seventy experienced therapists and 70 clinically naive individuals rated 2 videotaped family interviews. One interview demonstrated a matriarchal style of family interaction and the other demonstrated a patriarchal style. Ratings from the 2 groups of observers were compared to determine the effects of training and experience. The effects of leader gender were determined by comparing ratings of the 2 family interviews. Ratings of the mother and the father from the 2 interviews were compared to determine the effects of family roles. Results suggest that experienced observers in assessments of family functioning are vulnerable to biased views of mother-led families. In assessments of parent functioning, results suggest that although training and experience may promote more critical ratings, vulnerability to biased views of women as family leaders is not significantly affected. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparing therapist and client perspectives on reasons for psychotherapy termination.

Examines the extent of agreement on the reasons for psychotherapy termination given by therapists and their clients. 194 client files in a psychology training clinic were reviewed to obtain reasons for termination cited by therapists in treatment termination reports. Telephone interviews were conducted with 87 of these former clients to determine their perspectives on reasons for termination. Consistent with previous research, there was little concordance among the reasons cited by therapists and by clients regarding clients' decisions to terminate therapy. Of the clients identified by therapists as terminating because of the successful attainment of therapeutic goals, three-quarters reported this reason as important in their termination decision; of those clients reporting termination because of attaining therapeutic goals, only half were identified by therapists as having achieved their goals. Dissatisfaction with therapy and/or the therapist were reported by many clients as important in their termination decisions; such factors were rarely cited by therapists as reasons for termination. Attention to discrepancies between client and therapist expectations of therapy and therapy termination is necessary to reduce the high rate of premature termination in psychotherapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Survivors of childhood cancer and comparison peers: The influence of early family factors on distress in emerging adulthood.

This prospective study examines family predictors of distress among survivors of childhood cancer and comparison peers during the transition to emerging adulthood. Children with cancer (n = 55), comparison peers (n = 60), and parents completed measures of distress, family environment, social support, and demographic characteristics during initial treatment, as well as follow-up measures of young adult distress and demographic characteristics soon after participants turned 18 years old. Severity of initial treatment and late effects were rated by healthcare providers for participants with cancer. For all participants, mother and father report of initial parent distress was associated with their report of young adult distress at follow-up. Young adult gender moderated this association. For survivors of childhood cancer, severity of initial treatment and late effects also moderated the association between parent and young adult distress. Improving parent distress may help reduce child distress in general. For survivors specifically, ameliorating the impact of initial treatment and long-term physical problems may be beneficial. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Family dysfunction, parental attachment, and career search self-efficacy among community college students.

The relationship between family dysfunction, parental attachment, and career search self-efficacy was examined using a sample of 220 community college students. For the total sample, attachment to mother and father, and degree of family dysfunction combined to account for 14% of the variance in career search self-efficacy. Data were analyzed separately for men and women, which yielded results consistent with the literature. For women, attachment to mother and degree of family dysfunction combined to account for 17% of the variance in career search self-efficacy. For men, attachment to mother was the only significant predictor and accounted for 9% of the variance in career search self-efficacy. Implications for research and practice are described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)