Familiarity enhances visual working memory for faces.

Although it is intuitive that familiarity with complex visual objects should aid their preservation in visual working memory (WM), empirical evidence for this is lacking. This study used a conventional change-detection procedure to assess visual WM for unfamiliar and famous faces in healthy adults. Across experiments, faces were upright or inverted and a low- or high-load concurrent verbal WM task was administered to suppress contribution from verbal WM. Even with a high verbal memory load, visual WM performance was significantly better and capacity estimated as significantly greater for famous versus unfamiliar faces. Face inversion abolished this effect. Thus, neither strategic, explicit support from verbal WM nor low-level feature processing easily accounts for the observed benefit of high familiarity for visual WM. These results demonstrate that storage of items in visual WM can be enhanced if robust visual representations of them already exist in long-term memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotion-attention interactions in recognition memory for distractor faces.

Effective filtering of distractor information has been shown to be dependent on perceptual load. Given the salience of emotional information and the presence of emotion-attention interactions, we wanted to explore the recognition memory for emotional distractors especially as a function of focused attention and distributed attention by manipulating load and the spatial spread of attention. We performed two experiments to study emotion-attention interactions by measuring recognition memory performance for distractor neutral and emotional faces. Participants performed a color discrimination task (low-load) or letter identification task (high-load) with a letter string display in Experiment 1 and a high-load letter identification task with letters presented in a circular array in Experiment 2. The stimuli were presented against a distractor face background. The recognition memory results show that happy faces were recognized better than sad faces under conditions of less focused or distributed attention. When attention is more spatially focused, sad faces were recognized better than happy faces. The study provides evidence for emotion-attention interactions in which specific emotional information like sad or happy is associated with focused or distributed attention respectively. Distractor processing with emotional information also has implications for theories of attention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leveling-sharpening and memory organization.

The Schematizing Test (see 35: 2266) and a psychophysical task utilizing the method of single stimuli were used to differentiate a group of "levelers" (in a perceputal sense—or, in a psychoanalytic sense, repressors) from "sharpeners." Ss were asked to relate requested details of a story (the Pied Piper of Hamlin), the story being used as a measure of remote memory. The groups were differentiated on the basis of such recall. The results were seen as supporting the effects of cognitive style upon memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive styles in the context of modern psychology: Toward an integrated framework of cognitive style.

The goals of this article are to elucidate trends and perspectives in the field of cognitive style research and to propose an integrated framework to guide future research. This is accomplished by means of a comprehensive literature review of the major advances and the theoretical and experimental problems that have accumulated over the years and by a discussion of the promising theoretical models that can be further developed, in part, with modern neuroscience techniques and with research from different psychological fields. On the basis of the research reviewed in this article, the author suggests that cognitive styles represent heuristics that individuals use to process information about their environment. These heuristics can be identified at multiple levels of information processing, from perceptual to metacognitive, and they can be grouped according to the type of regulatory function they exert on processes ranging from automatic data encoding to conscious executive allocation of cognitive resources. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Matching faces to photographs: Poor performance in eyewitness memory (without the memory).

Eyewitness memory is known to be fallible. We describe 3 experiments that aim to establish baseline performance for recognition of unfamiliar faces. In Experiment 1, viewers were shown live actors or photos (targets), and then immediately presented with arrays of 10 faces (test items). Asked whether the target was present among the test items, and if so to identify the person, participants showed poor performance levels (roughly 70% accurate). Furthermore, there was no difference between immediate memory for a live person and photograph. In Experiment 2, the same targets and test items were presented simultaneously, and participants were asked to perform a matching task. Again, performance was poor (roughly 68% accurate), with no difference between matching photos and live people. In the final experiment, viewers were asked to match a live person to a single photograph. Even under these conditions, performance was poor (c. 85%), with no advantage over matching 2 photographs. We suggest that problems of eyewitness identification may involve difficulties in initial encoding of unfamiliar faces, in addition to problems of memory for an event. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dynamics of memory retrieval in older adulthood.

One of the most robust findings in cognitive aging is that of a significant decline in self-initiated recall from episodic memory. In laboratory studies this deficit can be seen in significant age differences in word-list free recall. In this article, the authors focus on free recall of categorized word lists where one observes "response bursting" in the form of a rapid output of within-category items with longer delays between categories. Age differences appear primarily in between category latencies, results that are consistent with a relative sparing of semantic memory combined with an age-deficit in episodic retrieval. When adjusted for differences in overall mnemonic ability, it is demonstrated that the relationship between organization and learning remains invariant with normal aging. The authors argue that the locus of the age deficit in free recall lies at the level of temporal coding of items and the use of temporal associations to guide recall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client interpersonal and cognitive styles as predictors of response to time-limited cognitive therapy for depression.

This study examined the relationship between cognitive and interpersonal styles and outcome among 24 clients who received time-limited cognitive therapy for depression. The authors hypothesized that this relationship would be mediated by therapeutic alliance. They found that clients' interpersonal style, particularly an underinvolved style, was predictive of treatment outcome. As predicted, the impact of this style on outcome was mediated through the therapeutic alliance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coarse-to-fine encoding of spatial frequency information into visual short-term memory for faces but impartial decay.

Face perception studies investigated how spatial frequencies (SF) are extracted from retinal display while forming a perceptual representation, or their selective use during task-imposed categorization. Here we focused on the order of encoding low-spatial frequencies (LSF) and high-spatial frequencies (HSF) from perceptual representations into visual short-term memory (VSTM). We also investigated whether different SF-ranges decay from VSTM at different rates during a study-test stimulus-onset asynchrony. An old/new VSTM paradigm was used in which two broadband faces formed the positive set and the probes preserved either low or high SF ranges. Exposure time of 500 ms was sufficient to encode both HSF and LSF in the perceptual representation (experiment 1). Nevertheless, when the positive-set was exposed for 500 ms, LSF-probes were better recognized in VSTM compared with HSF-probes; this effect vanished at 800-ms exposure time (experiment 2). Backward masking the positive set exposed for 800 ms re-established the LSF-probes advantage (experiment 3). The speed of decay up to 10 seconds was similar for LSF- and HSF-probes (experiment 4). These results indicate that LSF are extracted and consolidated into VSTM faster than HSF, supporting a coarse-to-fine order, while the decay from VSTM is not governed by SF. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group atmosphere and memory.

Subjects were read a story and then asked to recall it individually, in a group, and then individually again. During the group recall two variations in group atmosphere were employed: (a) cooperative vs competitive, and (b) democratic vs authoritarian leadership. General results included: (a) the group recall was superior to the average initial and final individual recall, and (b) the group recall in the cooperative atmosphere was superior to the group recall in the competitive atmosphere. Failure to provide adequate experimental conditions did not allow conclusions regarding the democratic-authoritarian variable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive bias modification: Induced interpretive biases affect memory.

Previous research has shown that it is possible to experimentally induce interpretive biases using ambiguous scenarios. This study extends past findings by examining the effects of cognitive bias modification for interpretation on subsequent scenario recall. Participants were trained to interpret emotionally ambiguous passages in either a positive or negative direction. Transfer of the training to novel scenarios was tested. After training, participants were also asked to recall details from these novel scenarios. The results indicate that the training was effective in inducing the intended group differences in interpretive bias. Importantly, participants exhibited memory biases that corresponded to their training condition. These results suggest that manipulating interpretive biases can result in corresponding changes in memory. Findings from this study highlight the importance of future research on the relation among cognitive biases and on the possibility of modifying cognitive biases in emotional disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generality and behavioral correlates of cognitive styles.

Factorial confirmation of 2 cognitive styles, defined as relationships between abilities within individuals, was sought in the within-individual variations of task performances. The cognitive styles, 1 termed "Conceptual versus Perceptual-motor Dominance," the other, "Strong versus Weak Automatization," were factorially isolated in each of 2 samples of adult normal males, and in 1 sample of adolescent male and female twins. The results are similar to those obtained by British factor analysts using hierarchical group factor method. Examination of the relationships of the factors to education and occupational levels in the adult normals revealed that the Strong Automatizers had higher occupational levels than the Weak Automatizers although the 2 groups of Ss did not differ in general intelligence or education. (35 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive interdependence and convergent expectations in transactive memory.

A laboratory experiment investigated the processes that underlie the development of transactive memory structures—the organizing schemes that connect knowledge held by individuals to knowledge held by others (D. A Wegner, T. Guiliano, & P. T. Hertel, 1985). The design was a 2?×?4 factorial that controlled expectations about the partner's knowledge (similar or different from the participant's) and cognitive interdependence, the degree to which participants' outcomes depended on whether they recalled the same or different information as their partner (defined by 4 incentives). Transactive memory was most differentiated when individuals had different expertise and incentives to remember different information and most integrated when individuals had similar expertise and incentives to remember the same information. These findings may help to explain the impact of previous experience and relationships on the development of transactive memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of valence on distance judgments of human faces.

"An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that photographs of positively valent faces would be set nearer the subject than negative faces, in ostensibly objective distance judgments… . Several examples of valent faces were compared, e.g., popular vs. unpopular figures from public life, an authority figure vs. peers, and self vs. peers. The responses of women… bore out the predictions, those of the men did not do so uniformly." From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4GD20B. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual search for faces with emotional expressions.

The goal of this review is to critically examine contradictory findings in the study of visual search for emotionally expressive faces. Several key issues are addressed: Can emotional faces be processed preattentively and guide attention? What properties of these faces influence search efficiency? Is search moderated by the emotional state of the observer? The authors argue that the evidence is consistent with claims that (a) preattentive search processes are sensitive to and influenced by facial expressions of emotion, (b) attention guidance is influenced by a dynamic interplay of emotional and perceptual factors, and (c) visual search for emotional faces is influenced by the emotional state of the observer to some extent. The authors also argue that the way in which contextual factors interact to determine search performance needs to be explored further to draw sound conclusions about the precise influence of emotional expressions on search efficiency. Methodological considerations (e.g., set size, distractor background, task set) and ecological limitations of the visual search task are discussed. Finally, specific recommendations are made for future research directions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive inhibition and working memory in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Studies of cognitive control in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have emphasized the ability to suppress motor responses (i.e., behavioral inhibition) rather than the ability to actively suppress prepotent mental representations (i.e., cognitive inhibition). Further, working memory deficits are suspected in ADHD, yet their distinction from cognitive inhibition is unclear. Two hundred and eighty-eight adolescent and adult participants, 115 of whom met criteria for ADHD and 173 of whom were for non-ADHD comparison, completed a sentence processing task that required the suppression of an incorrect interpretation and a working memory task. The results failed to support cognitive inhibition problems in ADHD. Moreover, the ability to reanalyze sentences with a temporary misinterpretation was at least partially related to working memory performance. The results challenge a unitary inhibition problem in ADHD and suggest inhibition problems do not extend to cognitive suppression in this age range. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Source memory enhancement for emotional words.

The influence of emotional stimuli on source memory was investigated by using emotionally valenced words. The words were colored blue or yellow (Experiment 1) or surrounded by a blue or yellow frame (Experiment 2). Participants were asked to associate the words with the colors. In both experiments, emotionally valenced words elicited enhanced free recall compared with nonvalenced words; however, recognition memory was not affected. Source memory for the associated color was also enhanced for emotional words, suggesting that even memory for contextual information is benefited by emotional stimuli. This effect was not due to the ease of semantic clustering of emotional words because semantically related words were not associated with enhanced source memory, despite enhanced recall (Experiment 3). It is suggested that enhancement resulted from facilitated arousal or attention, which may act to increase organization processes important for source memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attentional capture by irrelevant emotional distractor faces.

We establish attentional capture by emotional distractor faces presented as a “singleton” in a search task in which the emotion is entirely irrelevant. Participants searched for a male (or female) target face among female (or male) faces and indicated whether the target face was tilted to the left or right. The presence (vs. absence) of an irrelevant emotional singleton expression (fearful, angry, or happy) in one of the distractor faces slowed search reaction times compared to the singleton absent or singleton target conditions. Facilitation for emotional singleton targets was found for the happy expression but not for the fearful or angry expressions. These effects were found irrespective of face gender and the failure of a singleton neutral face to capture attention among emotional faces rules out a visual odd-one-out account for the emotional capture. The present study thus establishes irrelevant, emotional, attentional capture. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple roles for time in short-term memory: Evidence from serial recall of order and timing.

Three experiments are reported that examine the relationship between short-term memory for time and order information, and the more specific claim that order memory is driven by a timing signal. Participants were presented with digits spaced irregularly in time and postcued (Experiments 1 and 2) or precued (Experiment 3) to recall the order or timing of the digits. The primary results of interest were as follows: (a) Instructing participants to group lists had similar effects on serial and timing recall in inducing a pause in recall between suggested groups; (b) the timing of recall was predicted by the timing of the input lists in both serial recall and timing recall; and (c) when the recall task was precued, there was a tendency for temporally isolated items to be more accurately recalled than temporally crowded items. The results place constraints on models of serial recall that assume a timing signal generates positional representations and suggest an additional role for information about individual durations in short-term memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Enhanced visual short-term memory for angry faces.

Although some views of face perception posit independent processing of face identity and expression, recent studies suggest interactive processing of these 2 domains. The authors examined expression–identity interactions in visual short-term memory (VSTM) by assessing recognition performance in a VSTM task in which face identity was relevant and expression was irrelevant. Using study arrays of between 1 and 4 faces and a 1,000-ms retention interval, the authors measured recognition accuracy for just-seen faces. Results indicated that significantly more angry face identities can be stored in VSTM than happy or neutral face identities. Furthermore, the study provides evidence to exclude accounts for this angry face benefit based on physiological arousal, opportunity to encode, face discriminability, low-level feature recognition, expression intensity, or specific face sets. Perhaps processes activated by the presence of specifically angry expressions enhance VSTM because memory for the identities of angry people has particular behavioral relevance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)