Commitment to social deprivation and verbal conditioning.

Control Ss who experienced high prior deprivation of a reinforcing stimulus (approval) responded more with a reinforced response in a verbal conditioning situation than Ss less deprived. Other Ss committed themselves to undergoing postexperimental deprivation of social reinforcement after the same high prior social deprivation. A model suggested by dissonance theory predicted that such Ss who committed themselves for lower rewards would experience greater dissonance; the greater the dissonance, the more could Ss justify their decisions and reduce dissonance by reducing their motive for social reinforcement, consequently behaving in the conditioning situation as Ss who had low motivation for social reinforcement. As expected, experimental Ss in the High Dissonance condition who committed themselves for low reward ($1.00) responded less to social reinforcement, i.e., they showed a smaller increase in response strength of emission of verbal behavior than Control Ss or Low Dissonance Ss who committed themselves for high reward ($5.00). (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of social reward and punishment on dependent and dependency-anxious schizophrenics.

Several recent studies have reported mild social punishment to be more effective than social reward for motivating schizophrenics' learning. However, theoretical formulations of schizophrenia, as well as learning studies with normals, suggest that the relative effectiveness of positive and negative reinforcement varies with the individual's dependency needs and conflicts. This study was therefore designed to determine whether social rewards and social punishments would have differential effects upon the learning performance of highly dependent (HD) and highly dependency-anxious (HD-A) schizophrenics. In accord with theoretical expectations, the dependent Ss performed better under rewards than under punishment, while the dependency-anxious Ss performed better under punishment than under rewards. However, these differential reactions extinguished within a surprisingly short period. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elimination of vicarious reinforcement effects within an implicit reward situation.

The presence of cognitive evaluations of reward conditions in vicarious reward situations set in typical classrooms has been suggested in theoretical literature. The present study investigated this suggestion by examining the effect of free- versus no-talk conditions between target and peer Ss under vicarious reward conditions. Ss were 18 boys and 14 girls from a typical 4th-grade classroom. Data collected on a task involving reproduction of the letters of the alphabet showed that vicarious reinforcement effects occurred when verbal communication of reward enjoyment to nonreward Ss was possible but not when such communication was restricted. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Projective methods and verbal learning.

"This experiment investigated the question of whether some methods of measuring verbal learning were more sensitive than others in revealing the effects of frequency and consequence. It was found that the effects of frequency were homologous, regardless of the test used to measure verbal learning. The methods were not equivalent in revealing the effects of consequence (reward and punishment). The more difficult the particular test used to measure verbal learning, the lower was S's absolute score and the more likely to appear were the effects of reward and punishment." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of guilt, approachability of examiner, and stimulus relevance upon sexual responses to thematic apperception stimuli.

Examined the effects of approachability of female Es and stimulus relevance upon the sexual responses of 24 high- and 24 low-guilt male undergraduates (as determined by the Mosher Forced Choice Guilt Scale) to thematic stimuli. Consistent with previous results, findings show that all Ss made more sexual responses to high-relevant than low-relevant stimuli and that low-guilt Ss gave more sexual responses than high-guilt Ss to the high-relevant stimuli. Ss' perceptions of the Es were also examined. Results support predictions derived from social learning theory that high-guilt Ss are unable to discriminate between Es playing approachable and unapproachable roles, while low-guilt Ss are able to do so. Results support the hypothesis that high-guilt Ss are relatively insensitive to situational cues regarding external reward or punishment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impairment of reversal learning in the rat: A mediational explanation.

Examined the finding that reversal learning is impaired when rats are both punished and rewarded for incorrect responses. In Exp. I with 40 male Holtzman rats, it was found that (a) it was necessary for punishment and reward to be administered during both original and reversal learning for such impairment to occur; (b) similar but weaker impairment occurred when nonreward was administered during both original and reversal learning; and (c) reversal learning occurred most rapidly when the consequence of an error (punishment or nonreward) was switched between training and reversal. It is suggested that reversal learning reinstated the emotional state present during original learning and that impairment occurred because the associations formed to that state in training interfered with the behavior required during reversal. Exp. II with 22 Ss confirmed predictions from this hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Overjustification and children's intrinsic motivation: Comparative effects of four rewards.

Studied the relative overjustifying effects of various types of rewards on 30 boys' and 30 girls' (mean ages 72.6 and 72.4 mo, respectively) intrinsic motivation. Four reward procedures were examined—tangible, verbal, symbolic, and self-administered symbolic (self) rewards. Ss attempted to solve mazes under 1 of 5 training conditions and were then given a free-play period in which to engage in further maze play or try other materials. Ss receiving tangible rewards and those who self-administered symbolic rewards (self-reward) showed less subsequent intrinsic motivation than Ss in the control, verbal reward, and symbolic reward conditions. Moreover, internal locus-of-control expectancies (Stanford Preschool Internal–External Scale) were inversely related to intrinsic motivation for Ss in the self-reward condition. Results are discussed from 2 perspectives—the intrinsic–extrinsic reward continuum and E. L. Deci's (1975) distinction between the controlling (detrimental) and informational (competence- and motivation-enhancing) aspects of rewards. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of diagnostic category and reinforcer on learning without awareness.

Learning without awareness was tested by asking Ss to construct sentences using pronouns (I, we, he, they) and verbs presented to them. 3 groups were employed—normals, neurotics, and schizophrenics, under 4 experimental conditions: (a) E "rewarded" (said "good" to) 2 of the pronouns (I, we); (b) the use of he or they was "punished" ("not so good"); (c) differential reinforcement as was appropriate re: "punishment" and "reward" when employing the pronouns; (d) control. Results: normals profited well from all conditions of reinforcement; neurotics, only from reward or reward and punishment; schizophrenics, from punishment alone. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expression of interpersonal aggression by angered and nonangered persons with the Type A and Type B behavior patterns.

37 male undergraduates, who were classified on the student version of the Jenkins Activity Survey as showing the Type A (coronary prone) or Type B (noncoronary prone) behavior pattern, were first either angered or not angered in a problem-solving task by a confederate who posed as another S. In a subsequent bogus learning experiment, Ss had the opportunity to punish or reward the confederate. The effectiveness of the anger manipulation was attested to by the fact that angered Ss had reliably higher pulse rates and blood pressure. In the learning experiment, Type As who had not been angered gave the confederate reliably higher levels of punishment than did Type Bs, but there was no difference in the levels of punishment given by Type A and Type B Ss who had been angered. There was also no difference between Type A and Type B Ss in the levels of reward they gave the confederate. Results provide behavioral evidence for aggression in persons with the Type A behavior pattern. The fact that the difference in aggression was limited to nonangered Ss is interpreted in terms of differences in attributions of responsibility. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Curiosity, achievement, and avoidant motivation as determinants of epistemic behavior.

Measures of n Achievement (n Ach), Test Anxiety (Anx), level of Academic performance (AL), and "Involvement" (Inv) in task content, differentiated students tested for Rote retention and Comprehension of written material under 2 conditions of knowledge seeking: (a) achievement oriented, and (b) curiosity oriented. Predictions from Atkinson's Motive-Expectancy-Incentive (M-E-I) model regarding the superiority of High n Ach, Low Anx over Low n Ach, High Anx Ss, and of High over Low AL Ss, were upheld for Comprehension, but not for Rote, in the Achievement condition. As predicted from a combination of the M-E-I model and Berlyne's theory of epistemic curiosity, superiority of the High AL, High Inv over the Low AL, Low Inv Ss held for both Comprehension and Rote in the Curiosity condition. Hypothesized differences across conditions were partially confirmed. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal and visuospatial performance in male alcoholics: A test of the premature-aging hypothesis.

Tested the premature-aging hypothesis of generalized dysfunction, using a paired-associate learning test that has separate verbal and visuospatial subtests of the same structure and method. Ss were 36 hospitalized White male chronic alcoholics (mean age 42.4 yrs), 36 control Ss (mean age 42.5 yrs), and 24 elderly Ss (mean age 71.4 yrs). Ss were also administered the Shipley Institute of Living Scale for Measuring Intellectual Impairment and Memory-for-Designs test. Results show that elderly control Ss performed significantly worse than middle-aged control Ss on both learning subtests. For Ss between 30 and 80 yrs of age, increasing age resulted in increasing errors. According to the generalized dysfunction hypothesis, the performance of alcoholics should be similar to that of the elderly, showing impairment compared to control Ss on both learning tests. However, alcoholics performed at the same level as the middle-aged control Ss on verbal learning and were significantly poorer on visuospatial learning. The generalized dysfunction version of the premature-aging hypothesis for performance of alcoholics on neuropsychological tests was not supported. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discrimination learning in juvenile delinquents.

Tested 45 delinquent and 45 nondelinquent males in a 2-choice discrimination task with either reward for correct responses, punishment for incorrect responses, or reward and punishment for correct and incorrect responses, respectively. A modified Wisconsin General Test Apparatus was used. Results indicate a significant Group * Reward interaction in which nondelinquent Ss learned best for punishment and delinquent Ss learned best for reward. Results are interpreted as reflecting possible group differences in reward expectancies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Professional and nonprofessional mental health workers' modes of persuading clients to seek institutional services.

Used questionnaires to assess 38 professional and 31 nonprofessional mental health workers' choice of persuasive appeals to low-income clients. The following variables characterized the appeals offered to Ss: conformity, acceptance of the established order, participatory help or verbal instruction from the worker, present or future reward, and punishment. Results indicate that the professionals offer didactic help, and nonprofessionals threaten clients with punishment or stress immediate rewards. Nonprofessionals, compared to professionals, indicated that they would return more frequently to uncooperative clients. The 2 worker groups' preferences in appeals were related to their respective socioeconomic status and associated value systems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality and placebo effects upon timing behavior.

4groups of Ss, scoring in the extremes of Neuroticism and Extraversion scales, participated in 3 sessions of 100 learning and 25 extinction trials of timing behavior. ? of the Ss of each group took a placebo at Session 2, the other ? at Session 3. A repeated measurement, 2 X 2 Latin square design, was incorporated. Accuracy was significantly greater for Low than High neurotics during reinforcement trials. Accuracy significantly decreased for High neurotic introverts and increased for the High neurotic extraverts, and Low neurotic introverts and extraverts groups. Under placebo conditions, introverts' accuracy was significantly greater than extraverts'. High neurotic introverts were considered positive placebo reactors, and High neurotic extraverts were negative placebo reactors. (22 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypnotic time distortion and learning: Another look.

Conducted 2 studies employing different methodologies with a total of 75 undergraduates to test the hypothesis that hypnotic time distortion facilitates verbal learning. All of the Ss in Exp I and most of those in Exp II were given a modified version of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale-Form C. All Exp II Ss were also given the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. Analysis of previous research indicated that hypnotic susceptibility and the form of the time-distortion suggestions might be important moderator variables in the relationship. The separate and combined effects of these variables were observed in both studies. No combination of hypnotic susceptibility and time-distortion suggestions in either study raised performance level beyond that of the waking- and/or hypnotic-control conditions. Responses to a postexperimental questionnaire in Exp II indicated that high-susceptible Ss reported subjectively convincing changes in experienced time flow following time-distortion suggestions. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Behavioral correlates of the Rorschach shading determinant.

To test Beck's interpretation of the Rorschach Y determinant, 10 Low Y and 10 High Y male psychiatric inpatients were obtained from 4 hospitals. The hypothesis that High Y Ss are more resigned and inhibited than Low Y Ss was tested with 2 kinds of data about the overt behavior of the sample: interviews with the Ss and interviews with 3 staff members having contacts with them. The Patient Interviews confirmed the hypothesis at the .05 level. The Staff Interviews differentiated the Ss in the predicted direction at the .05 level on small psychiatric wards but not on a large ward. 2 hypotheses about this inconsistency are presented for future investigation. Clinical interpretation of the shading determinant is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Paired-associate learning by schizophrenic and normal subjects under conditions of personal and impersonal reward and punishment.

This is a report of 2 dissertations done to cross-validate the findings that, contrary to normals, the performance of schizophrenics on various tasks improves under conditions of punishment rather than reward. In addition, these studies tested the effect of personal vs. impersonal conditions of reinforcement. Ss were patients with acute as well as more chronic periods of illness. The results indicate that regardless of whether the reinforcement was administered mechanically (impersonally) or by another individual (personally), the performance of the schizophrenic group again showed improvement under conditions of punishment rather than rewards. The results are related to a theory of the etiology of schizophrenia and to the treatment of schizophrenics. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4JQ22A. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Discriminability and the contrafreeloading phenomenon.

According to previous reports of the contrafreeloading phenomenon, animals will work for a reward, and sometimes work quite hard, in the presence of the same reward available freely. Results of the present 2 experiments with a total of 21 male Holtzman albino rats suggest that the contrafreeloading data are explainable with a basic learning principle, discriminability, and its accompanying response decrement. For some Ss the change in stimulus conditions with introduction of free water was made more highly discriminable by a change in earned reinforcement conditions. The other Ss remained on the same earned reinforcement conditions under which all the Ss had been trained. Findings demonstrate that the discriminability between the conditions of working and freeloading was a most important factor contributing to the continued responding in the presence of free rewards. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development of responsiveness to vicarious reinforcement.

98 children in 2 age-groups between 2 yrs 6 mo and 5 yrs were pretrained and then performed a 2-choice discrimination problem in which a puppet model and the S responded alternately. Ss were exposed to a model who was either rewarded or punished on each trial. There was more imitation on vicarious reward than on vicarious punishment trials. Ss who demonstrated no initial responsiveness to vicarious reinforcement were then assigned to either a natural or reversed S-consequence condition and to 1 of 3 model consequence conditions (reward, punishment, or mixed). The finding of significantly fewer errors in the natural than in the reversed condition supports the mediational interpretation of vicarious reinforcement, not the J. L. Gewirtz (1971) operant interpretation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)