The effectiveness of the United Nations' leakproofness tests

The regulations for the packaging of dangerous goods, which are applicable world-wide for the various modes of transport, include performance tests. It is impossible to conduct laboratory tests for every environmental condition, but the tests can produce a conservative estimate of the situation during transport. This paper analyses the so-called leakproofness test as one of the design-type tests for packagings covered by the United Nations' (UN) recommendations for dangerous goods.     

Developments in plastics packaging for the transport of dangerous goods

Several interesting developments in plastics packagings and intermediate bulk containers (IBCs) for the transport of dangerous goods are of importance. Significant developments include the application of new materials and packaging concepts, the increasing re‐use of packaging and the possibility of the application of recycled material. How these developments have influenced or should influence the UN recommendations and regulations on the transport of dangerous goods is discussed. Further, the role of CEN and ISO standards, which are under development, is indicated. In this context, the European project CHEMPACK funded by the EC within the framework of the Standards, Measurements and Testing programme, is outlined. This project is executed in cooperation with raw materials manufacturers, packaging/IBC manufacturers and research institutes, and is coordinated by TNO. The aim of the project is to develop harmonized test methods and procedures for the assessment of the chemical compatibility of plastics packagings and IBCs. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Investigations Concerning the Maximum Filling Degree of Dangerous Goods Packagings for Hazardous Liquids

The dangerous goods regulations UN/ADR 6.1.5.5.4 (a) prescribe a maximum filling degree for determining the test pressure for the hydraulic pressure test by real measurements. The assumption is that the maximum filling degree of the liquid phase is the worst case concerning the gauge pressure. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to investigate the effect of the filling degree on the gauge pressure. Gauge pressure measurements and calculations for different substances were carried out at different filling degrees for a steel drum and a steel jerrican (heating up from 15°C to 55°C). The assumption that the maximum filling degree is the most critical is only valid for relatively rigid packagings: If the relative expansion of the packaging is smaller than the volume increase of the liquid phase due to heating up, the gauge pressure increases with increasing filling degree. But the opposite is true for relatively flexible packagings: If the relative expansion of the packaging exceeds the relative volume expansion of the liquid, the gauge pressure increases for decreasing filling degrees. The current regulations for the hydraulic test pressure determination at a maximum filing degree do not lead to the intended safety level. For a lower level than the maximum filling degree, the prescribed safety factor of 1.5 is not respected. Under transport conditions, it is possible that the inner gauge pressure exceeds the test pressure. This can result in a failure of the packaging. There is a need to reconsider the regulations. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Sift‐proofness of Dangerous Goods Packagings – An Incompletely Defined Requirement

Sift‐proofness is a requirement for different types of dangerous goods packagings for solid substances according to the international Dangerous Goods Regulations. In these regulations, a sift‐proof packaging is defined as a packaging that is completely impermeable to dry contents. This means indirectly that absolutely no mass transport of solid substances is allowed. Moreover, this requirement applies both to the original filling substance and to fine solid material generated during transport. Further specifications, test conditions or tolerable limit values are not given. This is in contrast to physical principles and the usual practice in other fields of technology in which sift‐proofness is relevant. This paper shows the necessary steps for how the requirements for sift‐proofness of dangerous goods packagings can be defined more precisely. Physical basics of the term ‘sift‐proofness’ are explained. A qualitative as well as a quantitative approach is possible. In any case, it is essential to carry out appropriate vibration tests to assess the sift‐proofness. There is a need for systematical investigations of the sift‐proofness of dangerous goods packagings. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Package performance testing of dangerous goods in high‐altitude shipments

This paper discusses the impact of high‐altitude shipments on package integrity. High‐altitude shipments are encountered when trucks travel over high mountain passes or when cargo and feeder aircraft transport packages in non‐pressurized or partially‐pressurized cargo holds. Both these types of transport methods will result in severe changes in pressure as compared to packages being transported close to sea level. The testing of packages under these conditions is critical since package integrity may be compromised. The current shipping tests performed in test laboratories do not account for pressure changes and vibration together. This study showed that combination packages for dangerous goods and hazardous materials that are tested to existing UN, ICAO and US DOT requirements are limited, and can result in significant number of leaks. Testing under combined vibration and pressure changes is necessary. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

弹药外包装箱标志的探讨

目的探讨我国弹药外包装箱标志的设计方案,使弹药外包装箱标志满足国际民用航空运输要求。方法在保留现有弹药包装文字标志、军用物资图示标志、储运图示标志、危险物资图示标志以及弹药特殊标志的基础上,按照国际民航组织制定的《危险品航空安全运输技术细则》,融入关于爆炸品的基本标记、附加标记、UN规格包装标记和危险性标签、操作标签的设计要求。结果将弹药外包装箱正面布局为军用标志区,背面布局为民航运输标记与标签区,左、右端面为军用与民航共用标志区的设计,实现了在一个包装箱上集成军用与民航所要求的所有信息。结论经过重新布局的弹药包装箱标志与标签,既符合了国家军用标准的要求,也满足了国际民航安全运输的要求。     

Leakproofness of dangerous goods packagings—comparison of worst‐case limit leakage rates and sensitivity of the bubble test

This work focuses on the question if the bubble test prescribed in the Dangerous Goods Regulations has sufficient sensitivity to detect leakage rates, which could result in the formation of explosive atmospheres during transport. The sensitivity of the bubble test is not directly comparable with other leak testing methods because of its different flow conditions. Therefore, a normalized minimum detectable leakage rate under Helium test conditions is calculated for the bubble test. This sensitivity of the bubble test under reference conditions is compared with limit leakage rates for a worst‐case transport scenario. The sensitivity of the bubble test is not sufficient to prove the limit leakage rates for 6‐L packagings. The formation of explosive vapour‐air‐mixtures cannot be excluded. Therefore, more sensitive leak testing methods should be considered for smaller packaging design types.     

Maximum Gauge Pressure in Dangerous Goods Packagings Under Normal Conditions of Carriage – Comparison of Direct Measurement and Calculation

The objective of this work was to determine the maximum gauge pressure in the vapour phase above the liquid in different design types of dangerous goods packagings under normal conditions of carriage. The design types investigated were steel and plastic packagings with a volume of approximately 6 l. Two different methods were applied. In method 1, the pressure inside the packaging filled with a certain filling substance (dichloromethane) was directly measured under simulated conditions of carriage (degree of filling: 90%; filling temperature: 15°C; temperature during storage: 31°C). The maximum measured gauge pressures were between 89 mbar for a light plastic jerrican and 336 mbar for a steel drum. In method 2, the gauge pressure was calculated. The consideration of a rigid packaging combined with the assumption of a vapour pressure of zero during filling and sealing can serve as a worst case scenario. The calculated gauge pressure is approximately 1061 mbar. This procedure leads to the highest safety factor and does not require any experimental investigations. For a more realistic approximation of the gauge pressure of a non‐rigid packaging, a packaging‐specific function of relative expansion can be used, which is determined by a hydraulic pressure test. The calculated values ranged from 105 to 347 mbar. Method 2 provides conservative results. No hazardous filling substance is needed, and it allows a prediction of gauge pressure for other temperatures, substances and filling degrees. Therefore, this method could serve as alternative to UN Model Regulations 6.1.5.5.4 (a). Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

民航运输弹药包装探讨

以联合国国际民航组织颁布的《危险品航空安全运输技术细则》为依据,分析了我国利用民航货机运输弹药的操作中,弹药包装存在的不足,探讨了通过提高弹药包装标准化程度、增加危险品标识、改进包装设计等措施,改善我军弹药航空运输包装的设想。     

Evaluation du coût énergétique du steak haché surgeléEstimation of power costs for producing quick-frozen minced steaks

To analyse the total energy consumption for quick-freezing, an examination has been made of the sequence of operations to which minced steak is subjected. Non-proportional ‘general energy expenses’ (heating, cleaning, lighting, services, etc) must be related to the quantity of foodstuffs produced annually in a given manufacturing plant. Another factor which arises is an ‘energy amortisation’ to take into account the equipment employed and where manufacture involves certain energy costs.The paper identifies the operations which are necessary in the manufacture of quick-frozen minced steaks: mincing, mixing, forming; quick-freezing proper (blast air tunnel); packagings (unitary packages, secondary packaging, a 10-steak carton, bulk packages, cartons containing 5 secondary boxes); storage (accepted duration: 1 month); transport (long distance: 500 km in 10 h); retail sales (glass-fronted wall cabinets, 7 days); home preservation (3 days); home preparation (electrical cookers). The study demonstrates the predominating importance, as regards energy, of packagings, retail sales and cooking.     

Measurement of Helium Leakage Rates through Closures of Dangerous Goods Packagings for the Assessment of Potentially Explosive Mixtures in Freight Containers

The objective was to find out whether an explosive atmosphere can be created in a freight container by gaseous leakage flow of vapour‐air‐mixture through leaks in the closures of dangerous goods packagings filled with hazardous liquids. Because of high temperatures during intercontinental carriage, there is a gauge pressure in the free vapour phase inside the packagings which can cause a gaseous leakage flow. Two different methods were applied: Helium limit leakage rates for 23 quantitatively important hazardous liquids concerning their lower explosion limit (LEL) were calculated for a worst case transport scenario (Method 1). Helium leakage rates of five closure types of dangerous goods packagings with volumes of approximately 6 l were measured using the pressure technique by accumulation (Method 2). All types of closures of steel packagings were uncritical. The maximum measured leakage was 33% of the limit leakage rate. The leakage rates of screw closures of plastic jerricans can exceed the LEL if there are production‐related patterns such as non‐concentricity of the closures and flashes on the neck. Especially for plastic packagings it is important to minimize gaseous leakage flow, because an explosive atmosphere can also be reached by permeation of the individual filling substance or by a combination of both effects. For the assessment of potentially explosive mixtures in freight containers, both mass transfer mechanisms have to be taken into account. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Evaluation du coût énergétique du steak haché surgelé

To analyse the total energy consumption for quick-freezing, an examination has been made of the sequence of operations to which minced steak is subjected. Non-proportional ‘general energy expenses’ (heating, cleaning, lighting, services, etc) must be related to the quantity of foodstuffs produced annually in a given manufacturing plant. Another factor which arises is an ‘energy amortisation’ to take into account the equipment employed and where manufacture involves certain energy costs.The paper identifies the operations which are necessary in the manufacture of quick-frozen minced steaks: mincing, mixing, forming; quick-freezing proper (blast air tunnel); packagings (unitary packages, secondary packaging, a 10-steak carton, bulk packages, cartons containing 5 secondary boxes); storage (accepted duration: 1 month); transport (long distance: 500 km in 10 h); retail sales (glass-fronted wall cabinets, 7 days); home preservation (3 days); home preparation (electrical cookers). The study demonstrates the predominating importance, as regards energy, of packagings, retail sales and cooking.     

Design of a test method to simulate the stresses encountered by packaging during sea transport

The aim of this research was to design a specific testing method to simulate the mechanical hazards encountered in sea transport regardless of sea routes and sea conditions and to put it into practice with specially designed devices. The Laboratoire National d'Essais (LNE) has carried out this research in cooperation with the French Ship-Building Research Institute. Eight sea routes of major commercial importance have been chosen and among them five zones in which heavy swells are likely to occur. The behaviour of four types of ships (representative of the present merchant fleet) submitted to various sea conditions has been calculated by computer. Moreover, the stacking conditions on board have been observed directly by the LNE. The analysis of parameters which describe the movement of the ship and affect the packagings are, respectively, rolling, pitching and slamming. Consequently, the forces applied to packagings at the bottom of a stack are a vertical compression force and a horizontal force applied by the moving stacked packagings. A special testing device has been designed applying simultaneously to a packaging both a stacking load and a dynamic horizontal force to this load. The test parameters have been adjusted through experimental ranges of tests on box-pallets, the behaviour of which were well known in field trials.     

Validation of an Alternative Method for Testing the Chemical Compatibility of Liquids with Polyethylene Packagings for Dangerous Goods

Safety risks may ensue when the chemicals contained in polyethylene packagings ^a age and damage them. To prevent subsequent accidents, the European Dangerous Goods Regulations have laid down requirements for testing the chemical compatibility of liquid dangerous goods transported in polyethylene packagings. The test procedures include 6 months in which the chemical is prestored in the packaging. After this time, the respective design‐type tests are performed. Alternative methods with so‐called standard liquids, simulating the different types of damaging effects, are also possible. If a packaging has successfully passed the design type tests with a standard liquid, other dangerous goods may also be transported in this packaging, as long as it is demonstrated that they have a less damaging effect than the standard liquid. However, in this area there is only little information and research available. A new potentially effective and time‐saving method for comparing the stress crack damaging influence of liquids with standard liquids was proposed by a major German chemical company. The validation of this method, which was carried out on two polyethylene materials, showed the general applicability of the method. Two kinds of wetting solutions were applied to simulate cracking under stress. The influence of prestorage, test temperatures, wetting agents and material was examined. FEM calculations were carried out to ascertain the influence of the sample shape. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

乘客安全气囊工厂包装件的改进探索

目的采用改进包装的方式降低乘客安全气囊(PAB)工厂包装件的运输危险性。方法依据乘客安全气囊在联合国外部火烧试验(UN6c试验)的结果,结合LS-DYNA动力有限元软件的分析,先后采用网格式和条栅式金属丝网笼包装控制金属迸射物的产生。结果条栅式金属丝网笼包装成功束缚了所有动能大于8 J和动能大于20 J的金属迸射物,使乘客安全气囊工厂包装件成功通过了联合国外部火烧试验。结论改进后的包装符合联合国关于危险货物运输的建议书(TDG)中对危险品包装的有关要求,将原分类为第1类(爆炸品)的乘客安全气囊工厂包装件降低为第9类(杂项危险品),使乘客安全气囊(PAB)工厂包装件适合更多形式的运输。     

Industrial leak testing of dangerous goods packagings

The Dangerous Goods Regulations currently do not include limit leakage rates or sensitivity requirements for industrial leak testing procedures that are equivalent to the bubble test, which is the prescribed test method for design type testing of dangerous goods packagings. During series production of such packagings, various methods are used, which often do not meet the requirements of the bubble test with regard to important criteria. Sensitivity, flow direction, pressure level and automatability are particularly important factors when selecting a suitable industrial leak testing method. The following methods are in principle both suitable and equally effective as the bubble test: pressure rise test (vacuum chamber), ultrasonic bubble leak detection and gas detection methods (pressure technique by accumulation and vacuum chamber technique). To ensure a uniform test level during design type testing and production line leak testing and therefore a comparable safety level as required by the Dangerous Goods Regulations, it is necessary to include a more precise specification in these regulations. This requires, on the one hand, information about the sensitivity of the bubble test and, on the other hand, the inclusion of a list of suitable, equally effective industrial test methods with their specific boundary conditions.     

Peelable seam systems and their production

In packaging, heat-seal seams have been known as ‘peelable seals’ for a long time. In this system seal medium A is sealed with seal medium B. They are combined in such a way that the sealed seam can be reopened by a defined force without destroying the packaging. Typical applications for peelable seals are boxes or containers with sealed cover sheets, blisters and flexible packagings. The tendency towards peelable packagings has increased recently. This research project dealt with the relevant processes and parameters that influence peelable seals and aims to define reproducible, peelable sealed seams and to elaborate upon a method to develop and produce peelable seam systems. Compared with other research programmes or bibliographical data, this project dealt, in particular, with:

• i the definition of a ‘reproducible, peelable sealed seam’;
• ii an analysis of peelable seam production using the different sealing techniques (heat-contact, ultrasonic and inductive high-frequency);
• iii the influence of the type of sealer jaw on the production and characteristics of peelable seams.

     

智能包装简介

本文在智能包装定义及分类的基础上,介绍了几种常见的智能包装一一信息型智能包装、功能材料型智能包装以及功能结构型智能包装,对于业界同仁了解智能包装的基本情况,有一定的启迪作用。     

Permeation Through Plastic Dangerous Goods Packaging During Transport in Freight Containers – Detection of Potentially Explosive Mixtures in Containers Under Normal Conditions of Carriage

The key point within the scope of this research project was to find out whether there was a risk of creating an explosive atmosphere by permeation of flammable liquid compounds during transport of dangerous goods in freight containers under normal conditions of carriage. Therefore, all aspects that had an influence on the formation of such an atmosphere had to be considered. The most important influencing factors were permeation, air change in the freight container and ambient temperature. The first step was to investigate the permeation with different packaging materials, charge and temperatures. Furthermore, the air change rates of different freight containers were measured. A few climate tests with containers on ships, e.g. to Singapore, were performed to assess normal conditions of carriage. Another important point was measuring the solvent (toluene) concentration in the gas phase in a freight container loaded with plastic intermediate bulk containers (IBCs) filled with toluene. To confirm that the measured values were in the right range, the toluene concentration in the gas phase in a container was calculated with different packaging materials, air change rates and temperatures. The results of the measurements and calculations have shown that safety layers in the packaging wall, e.g. the copolymer of ethylene and vinyl alcohol (EVOH) and polyamide, can reduce the rate of permeation by more than a decimal power, but the lower explosive limit of toluene is easily reached within a few hours at 40°C charge temperature if there is no barrier. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

出口锂电池危险品运输包装的安全设计与防护

目的研究出口锂电池危险品运输包装的设计要素和防护措施。方法针对出口锂电池危险品的特性,系统总结国际技术法规对于锂电池运输包装的安全规范,并比较分析国际海运危险货物运输规则(IMDG CODE)和国际航空运输协会危险品运输规则(IATA DGR)中的特定指引要求。依据跌落试验、堆码试验的物理性能指标的设计,研究出口锂电池危险品运输包装的物理安全性能。结果提出了保证出口锂电池危险品运输包装安全的建议,同时基于此类危险品包装的整体安全设计和单元防护,提出了锂电池组合包装、有效防短路保护、塑胶外壳防护等安全要素优化方案。结论研究提出的安全设计要素和防护措施,可以为锂电池危险品运输包装的安全防护提供重要的实践指导。