Zur lebensmittelrechtlichen Beurteilung hervorhebender Hinweise bei Fetten und fetthaltigen Zubereitungen

Legal Food Estimation of Remarks Concerning the Quality of Fats and Fat Containing Preparations For legal food estimation of commercial fats and oils as well as of preparations, industrially produced of fats and oils, the general regulations of the food and requisite law of 15. 8. 1974 in context with definitions e. g. in the rules of the German foodbook or in guiding principles of the food management are to notice concerning accentuating quality hints as “fine”, “first class”, “good”, “pure”, “natural” or similar. The relations are explained on butter or pure butter fat and butter pastry, on lard, lard pastry, on native and refined sunflower oils as on hardened marine animal oil and preparations produced of these ingredients.     

Margarines,butter and vegetable oils as sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

Concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were determined in Finnish butter, margarines and vegetable oils and their raw materials. In all the samples some degree of PAH contamination was found. The average per capita intake was estimated at 0.6 μg per day. The plant raw materials are supposed to be contaminated by combustion-derived atmospheric particles during the growing period. Inappropriate drying processes can substantially increase the contamination level. Deodorization processes used by food industry seem to decrease the total PAH levels significantly.     

The co-processing of coal with heavy feedstocks

When coal is processed with bitumen, heavy oils and petroleum residua there is a technological and economical advantage over conventional liquefaction processes. “Current coal” liquefaction concepts use, as vehicle, a coal-derived oil to react with coal, but because two-thirds of the coal-derived oil must be recycled, the throughput efficiency of these processes is low. In contrast, using bitumen, heavy oils and residua as vehicles to process coal is a “once-through” process. The data show that bitumen, heavy oils, residua and related liquids can be used to liquefy coal, and that the extent of liquefaction and the yields of distillable oils vary and depend upon the type of solvent and process conditions. Some of the co-processing options involve catalysts made of transition metals, such as nickel, cobalt, iron and molybdenum. However, the development of better catalysts and additives should be pursued to increase the production of high quality liquid fuels.     

Palm Kernel and coconut oils: Analytical characteristics,process technology and uses

Palm kernel and coconut oils are the most used of the lauric acid group of oils. The characteristic of this group is their high content of saturated acids, lauric and myristic, and it is from this feature that their principal uses are derived. Due to their triglyceride composition, both oils have steep melting curves and melt below body temperature. Their low degree of unsaturation gives them high oxidative stability. As a result of these properties they are found widely used as hard butters and in vegetable fat ice-creams, coffee whiteners and similar products. Their use in margarine gives that product an attractive coolness in the mouth. Coconut oil is also used extensively as a raw material for soaps and detergents and as a body oil. The oils are susceptible to hydrolytic splitting and to trace metal catalyzed oxidation. They are particularly affected by contamination with other oils which produce either reduced oxidative stability or, when the contaminant is high melting, an unacceptable palate cling. Refining is normally done with caustic soda solutions and refining conditions are chosen to minimize neutral oil losses due to saponification. Physical refining is also practised and is particularly useful for treating palm kernel oils with high free fatty acid content. To improve their quality and applicability for several uses, both oils are hydrogenated, fractionated and interesterified in various combinations. Fractionation is done either by dry “pressing” or with the assistance of detergents or solvents, the highest quality products being obtained using solvents. The relatively high solubility of the fatty acids can result in effluent problems.     

Gewinnung leichter Kohlenwasserstoffe aus schweren Ölen — Verfahren und Entwicklungen

Manufacture of light hydrocarbons from heavy oils – processes and developments . High quality crude oils are running short and their price continues to increase. At the same time there is a trend towards light petroleum products for use as transportation fuels or petrochemical raw materials. Consequently, the conversion of heavy oils, i.e., particularly distillation residues but also heavy oils from tar sands, is gaining increasing commercial importance. The cracking processes currently used in the refining industry are reviewed. Emphasis is placed on their application to metal-and asphaltene-containing heavy oils. Feed pretreatment by solvent deasphalting is discussed and the manufacture of syncrude from tar sands is considered. New developments for conversion of heavy oils are outlined. The future production of shale oil and of transportation fuels from oil shale is briefly treated.     

Chemical Characterization of Virgin Almond and Hazelnut Oils and Their By‐Products

Various cultivars of almonds (“Ferragnes,” “Guara,” “Largueta,” and “Marcona”) and hazelnuts (“Negret,” “Pauetet,” and “Tonda”), particularly their virgin oils and by‐products, are evaluated in this study. The almond and hazelnut virgin oils present high contents of oleic acid (59–73% and 76–80%, respectively) and α‐tocopherol (420–542 and 310–378 mg kg^–1, respectively), as compared with other virgin vegetable oils. Aldehydes are the major contributors to their aromatic profile (54–74% almond oil and 30–40% hazelnut oil of total content), especially, benzaldehyde in almond oils (1.35–7.52 mg kg^–1), and hexanal in hazelnut oils (0.99–1.27 mg kg^–1). Statistical differences exist between the virgin almond and hazelnut oils and their varieties, for most of the chemical compounds studied. While all the nut varieties are high in polar phenolic compounds, “Ferragnes” almonds (1262 mg kg^–1) and “Negret” hazelnuts (1720 mg kg^–1) stand out. Accordingly, high antioxidant activity is also observed. Finally, the residual cakes may be considered a good source of polar phenolic compounds (823–2064 mg kg^–1 almond cakes, 2261–4179 mg kg^–1 hazelnut cakes), possessing high antioxidant capacity with potential applications of these by‐products as functional ingredients in food and non‐food formulations. Practical Applications: Virgin nut oils are gaining consumers’ preference due to their unique organoleptic attributes and potential health effects. It is therefore very relevant to establish their specific chemical composition, directly related to their properties, and that are greatly affected by the cultivar.     

Activation analysis of environmental pollutants

Activation analysis is a highly sensitive and specific technique for the detection of trace heavy metal pollutants in environmental materials. Comparison of natural “baseline” levels with elevated levels provides direct evidence of contamination. Neutron activation analysis (NAA) is used in this study to determine arsenic, zinc, cadmium, and mercury. Photo-nuclear activation analysis (PNAA) is used to determine lead in soils. Holland Marsh, a market-gardening area north of Toronto, has been studied as various herbicides and fungicides have been used there. The analyses of soil and vegetation samples, and of human head hair collected from residents are reported.     

A Rapid Method of Identification and Assessment of Total Crude Oils and Crude Oil Fractions by Gel Permeation Chromatography

Abstract

“Fingerprint” chromatograms of crude oils have been obtained using a simple gel permeation chromatographic system with a differential re-fractometer as detector and tetrahydrofuran as solvent. The elution time is less than 1 hr using a sample size of about 6 mg and the repeatability is good. When toluene is used as solvent, a different profile is obtained which is again unique for each crude oil.

The applications of this technique to crude oil assessment and composition of crude oil mixtures will be discussed since the “fingerprints” obtained have been shown to be unique for the 50 crude oils examined. Various crude oil fractions, e.g., gas oils and waxy distillates, have also been investigated. Chromatograms of oil pollution samples from the UK have indicated that certain types of pollution can be identified although present experience with a wide range of sample types is limited.     

Oleochemical esters — environmentally compatible raw materials for oils and lubricants from renewable resources

Due to the increasing market relevance of environmentally labelled products, the ecological properties of oleochemical esters have been intensively studied within the last couple of years. In general, their aquatic toxicity is very low or almost negligible, and they are readily biodegradable in most cases. They have not to be labelled as “dangerous for the environment” according to the EU Dangerous Substance Directive. Their origin from renewable resources results in lower net CO₂-emissions (“global warming”) compared to petrochemical products. Not many lubricants have such rather positive ecological profiles. Thus, most of them are classified in the most favourable water hazard class, i.e. in WGK 0. In addition, they fulfill the requirements of several European environmental labels, e.g. “Blauer Engel”. These favourable ecological properties together with their well established technical performance recommend the oleochemical esters as suitable base oils for the development of high performance “green” oil and lubricant products.     

Regional and cultivar comparison of Italian single cultivar olive oils according to flavor profiling

Geographical origin, cultivar, and olive ripening stage are important factors which affect the typical flavor profile of extra virgin olive oils. Aromatic compounds and sensorial profiles of “Casaliva”, “Frantoio”, and “Leccino” olive oils from three different Italian production regions Abruzzo (eastern‐central Italy), Lombardy (northern Italy), and Tuscany (western‐central Italy) were assessed in two cropping years and at three olive ripening stages (green, veraison, and ripe). The chemical aromatic compounds were more effective in discriminating the oils than their sensorial attributes. Oils showed peculiar aromatic and sensorial profiles according to their region of origin. Genetically similar “Casaliva” and “Frantoio” showed also analogous profiles, but distinct from “Leccino”. The interaction between regions of cultivation and cultivars significantly affected the flavor profiling. Practical applications: This research provides a sound proof that geographical origin, cultivar, and fruit ripening stage, could play an important interactive role in shaping the flavor profiling of extra virgin olive oils. This represents a scientific basis of the “typicality” concept, which should address the marketing strategies for exploiting of the PDO products.     

Effect of fatty acids and tocopherols on the oxidative stability of vegetable oils

The oxidative stability of vegetable oils is determined by their fatty acid composition and antioxidants, mainly tocopherols but also other non‐saponifiable constituents. The effect of fatty acids on stability depends mainly on their degree of unsaturation and, to a lesser degree, on the position of the unsaturated functions within the triacylglycerol molecule. Vegetable oils contain tocopherols and tocotrienols, especially α‐ and γ‐tocopherols, as their main antioxidants. The antioxidant behavior of tocopherols represents a complex phenomenon as they are efficient antioxidants at low concentrations but they gradually lose efficacy as their concentrations in the vegetable oils increase. The “loss of efficacy” of tocopherols, sometimes referred to as a “pro‐oxidant effect”, is witnessed by an increase in the rate of oxidation during the induction period, despite elongation of this phase. The phenomenon is much obvious for α‐tocopherol, but is also evident for other tocopherols. In agreement with nature's wisdom, the tocopherol levels in vegetable oils seem to be close to the optimal levels needed for the stabilization of these oils. The presence of other antioxidants in the oils, e.g. carotenoids, phenolic compounds, and Maillard reaction products, may synergize with tocopherols and minimize this loss of efficacy.     

Determination of trans fatty acids in cold pressed oils and in dried seeds

The adulteration of cold pressed oils (CPO) by refining or by blending with refined oils leads to an increase in their trans fatty acid (TFA) contents. The regulations of the European Union (EU) lay down strict processing conditions without any steam treatment for native olive oils and provide limits for TFA. However, German regulations allow a “steam washing” for CPO other than native olive oil and do not limit TFA. Thus, the TFA contents of such oils might exceed the limits for native olive oil. Modern capillary GLC serves as a quick tool for the detection of TFA. However, care should be taken to avoid the formation of TFA as artefacts during analysis. We evaluated the TFA contents in several oils labelled as “cold pressed” and the formation of TFA during “steam washing” and deodorization. Analysis of some seeds indicates that preliminary drying of the seeds may also contribute to TFA content.     

Processing effects on the polyaromatic hydrocarbon content of grapeseed oil

Grapeseed oil can occasionally have dangerous levels for human health of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) due to the drying process, which involves direct contact with combustion gases. Oil samples extracted from grapeseeds before and after drying were analyzed for their PAH content with a new, fast, bi-dimensional liquid chromatography method. Samples collected before drying had relatively high PAH amounts; Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) content ranged from 0.9 to 2.4 ppb with an average of 1.4 ppb. The high contamination level found in the raw material is probably due to the practice of compacting pomace with bulldozers to reduce its volume before storage. The drying process did not significantly influence the light PAH content, but caused a large increase of the heavy fraction. BaP with an average content of 20.2 ppb, had the largest increase.     

The influence of catalyst regeneration on the composition of zeolite-upgraded biomass pyrolysis oils

The composition of oils derived from the on-line, low pressure zeolite upgrading of biomass pyrolysis oils from a fluidized bed pyrolysis unit have been investigated in relation to the regeneration of the zeolite catalyst. The catalyst used was H-ZSM-5 zeolite. The gases were analysed by packed column gas chromatography. The composition of the oils before catalysis and after catalyst upgrading were analysed by liquid chromatography fractionation, followed by coupled gas chromatography—mass spectrometry of each fraction. In particular, the aromatic and oxygenated aromatic species were identified and quantified. In addition, the oils were analysed for their elemental composition and molecular weight range using size exclusion chromatography. Before catalysis the biomass pyrolysis oil was highly oxygenated but after catalysis a highly aromatic oil was formed with high concentrations of monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, significant concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were formed. Regeneration of the zeolite catalyst showed that continued regeneration reduced the effectiveness of the catalyst in converting biomass pyrolysis oils to an aromatic product. Elemental analysis of the upgraded oils showed an increase in the oxygen content of the oil with increasing regeneration of the catalyst. The molecular weight range of the oils was found to decrease markedly after catalysis, but continued regeneration of the catalyst increased the molecular weight range of the upgraded oils. Detailed analysis of the uncatalysed oils showed they contained low concentrations of aromatic and PAH species which markedly increased in concentration after catalysis. The overall effect of increasing catalyst regeneration was a decrease in the concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons and PAH. Also as the catalyst was regenerated, the number of methyl groups on the parent single ring aromatic compound or PAH increased. The oxygenated aromatic species in the oil before catalysis were mainly, phenols and benzenediols and their alkylated homologues. After catalysis some of the oxygenated species were reduced and some increased in concentration. A dual mechanistic route is suggested for the formation of aromatics and PAH during the catalytic upgrading of biomass pyrolysis oils: (1) the formation of low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons on the catalyst which then undergo aromatization reactions to produce aromatic hydrocarbons and PAH; (2) deoxygenation of oxygenated compounds found in the non-phenolic fraction of the pyrolysis oils which directly form aromatic compounds.     

Zur Anwendung der Lebensmittelkennzeichnungs-Verordnung vom 22. Dezember 1981 auf Fette und Fettzubereitungen in Fertigpackungen

The “Lebensmittelkennzeichnungs-Verordnung”(Regulation for Food Labelling) of 22^th December 1981 in Connection with Fat and Fat Preparations in Finished Food Products The transformation of the EEC labeling directive of 18^th December 1978 into German law afforded considerable changes of the previously valid regulations on food labeling. The new “Lebensmittelkennzeichnungs-Verordnung”(abbr. LMKV; Regulation for food labeling) of 22^th December 1981 regulates labeling of packages containing finished products to be delivered directly to the consumer. Up till now only three statements on the label have been obligatory: trade or commercial name, declaration of the amount and address of the producer. The new LMKV requires in addition: a list of ingredients and a statement of the minimum period of keepability. Examples are given on the application of LMKV for the labeling of finished products packages containing vegetable and animal fats and oils as defined in Appendix No. 1 of this regulation.     

Untersuchung und Beurteilung von PAK in Speisefetten und -ölen

Investigation and Legal Evaluation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Vegetable Fats and Oils The analysis of 40 native and refined commercially available vegetable fats and oils reveals the influence of the environment and the treatment on the contamination with PAHs. Totally refined oils and fats have no or only a low contamination of PAHs whereas grapeseed oil contains PAHs to a high extent. This fact has to be deduced to the old-fashioned drying process of the pressed grapes. The analytical procedure with HPLC and fluorimetric detection was done after alcaline hydrolysis. The PAHs were extracted using the distribution between DMF, cyclohexane and water. The legal evaluation of high contaminated is discussed in regard of national and international regulations.     

Fast quantitative analysis of soybean oil in olive oil by high-temperature capillary gas chromatography

Analysis of glycerides has always been of great interest, especially to the food industry. Several methods have been developed, and attempts to improve analytical conditions are prevalent. Among these methods, high-temperature capillary gas chromatography has received particular consideration because it rapidly provides a glyceride profile. In this paper, we discuss a method to identify and quantitate mixtures of olive and soybean oils with the intention of verifying the latter as an adulterant of olive oils. The contamination of olive oil with soybean oil was detected by the presence of the triglyceride trilinolein, which does not exist in pure olive oil, although it is abundant in soybean oil. A calibration curve was constructed with several levels of contamination, and the lowest amount of detectable soybean oil was determined to be 4%.     

Distribution of polynuclear aromatic ring classes in the alberta basin bitumens and crude oils

The total polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content and relative distribution of the fused aromatic ring classes have been studied in four Cretaceous bitumens and crude oils of varying degree of geothermal maturation. A high performance liquid Chromatographic (HPLC) separation, selective for up to four fused aromatic rings, was used to separate the PAH ring systems. The effect of geothermal maturation was simulated by reductive treatment of the heavy Athabasca bitumen. The treatment produced PAH ring distribution similar to that in the light Medicine River oil, and diminished PAH content considerably. The 3- and 4-fused ring systems increased while hydrocarbons containing more than four fused rings decreased. Alkyl substitution was also reduced as a result of both the natural and simulated maturations. Separation efficiency was monitored by refractive index and u.v. detectors, g.c., m.s., ¹³C n.m.r. and spectrofluorometry.     

A Survey of the Amounts of Oxidized Triglycerides and Triglyceride Dimers in Virgin and “Lampante” Olive Oils

The aim of this work was to ascertain the amount of oxidized triglycerides and triglyceride dimers in virgin and “lampante” olive oils: to this effect, 38 samples were collected from different oil-mills. No data on the above compound classes in ?lampante”? olive oils have ever appeared in literature up to now. However, fat autoxidation is known to imply polymerization reactions; so, low amounts of oligopolymers may be formed in oil at a given state of oxidation. This aspect also applies to virgin olive oils because the very few data reported in literature are mainly related to extra virgin olive oils which are classified as high quality oils. Column chromatography and high-performance size exclusion chromatography were used for oil analysis in this work. Triglyceride dimers were either absent or present in traces in virgin olive oils, but were found in ?lampante”? oils with a mean value of 0.07%. Oxidized triglyceride percentages in ?lampante”? oils were more than twice as high as those present in virgin oils. The data obtained suggest the following consideration: the presence of dimers in vegetable oils reveals a rather high oxidation level and is confirmed by the higher oxidized triglyceride values. This is a reliable index of oxidative degradation in oil.     

Abluftprobleme in der Fettindustrie und in verwandten Gebieten

Exhaust Air Problems in the Fat Industry and Related Fields After considering the legal basis for emission control and the most important statutory instrument in this connection, the “Clean Air Manual” (TA-Luft), the paper goes on to name the air pollutants giving rise to emission problems in the relevant production processes and branches of industry, and quotes examples of analytical results which support this information. Detailed attention is paid to the processing of edible oils and fats, and also technical greases; the foods industry, with examples taken from production of ready meals and the curing of meat; and other related fields such as abattoir by-product processing and fish-meal production. The paper claims that with few exceptions the number one exhaust air problem of these industries consists in preventing the emission of exhaust air charged with malodorous substances. The problems of defining “odour nuisance” in the form of a transgression of critical values are explained, as are the difficulties involved in analytical identification of the substances responsible.